Tolerogenic synthetic nanocarriers

ABSTRACT

This invention relates, at least in part, to compositions comprising synthetic nanocarriers and immunosuppressants that result in immune suppressive effects. Such compositions can further comprise antigen and provide antigen-specific tolerogenic immune responses.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119 of U.S.provisional application 61/480,946, filed Apr. 29, 2011, 61/513,514,filed Jul. 29, 2011, 61/531,147, filed Sep. 6, 2011, 61/531,153, filedSep. 6, 2011, 61/531,164, filed Sep. 6, 2011, 61/531,168, filed Sep. 6,2011, 61/531,175, filed Sep. 6, 2011, 61/531,180, filed Sep. 6, 2011,61/531,194, filed Sep. 6, 2011, 61/531,204, filed Sep. 6, 2011,61/531,209, filed Sep. 6, 2011, 61/531,215, filed Sep. 6, 2011, theentire contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates, at least in part, to compositions comprisingsynthetic nanocarriers and immunosuppressant that can provideantigen-specific immune suppression, preferably, tolerogenic immuneresponses.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Conventional strategies for generating immunosuppression associated withan undesired immune response are based on broad-acting immunosuppressivedrugs. Additionally, in order to maintain immunosuppression,immunosuppressant drug therapy is generally a life-long proposition.Unfortunately, the use of broad-acting immunosuppressants are associatedwith a risk of severe side effects, such as tumors, infections,nephrotoxicity and metabolic disorders. Accordingly, newimmunosuppressant therapies would be beneficial.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, a composition comprising (i) a first population ofsynthetic nanocarriers coupled to an immunosuppressant, and (ii) an APCpresentable antigen are provided. In one embodiment, theimmunosuppressant in the composition is in an amount effective togenerate a tolerogenic immune response to the APC presentable antigen.In one embodiment, the APC presentable antigen is coupled to syntheticnanocarriers of the first population of synthetic nanocarriers. Inanother embodiment, the APC presentable antigen is coupled to syntheticnanocarriers of a second population of synthetic nanocarriers.

In one embodiment, the first population and the second population arethe same.

In one embodiment, the mean of a particle size distribution obtainedusing dynamic light scattering of the synthetic nanocarriers of thefirst and/or second population is a diameter of greater than 100 nm. Inanother embodiment, the diameter is greater than 150 nm. In anotherembodiment, the diameter is greater than 200 nm. In another embodiment,the diameter is greater than 250 nm. In another embodiment, the diameteris greater than 300 nm.

In one embodiment, the immunosuppressant comprises a statin, an mTORinhibitor, a TGF-β signaling agent, a corticosteroid, an inhibitor ofmitochondrial function, a P38 inhibitor, an NF-κβ inhibitor, anadenosine receptor agonist, a prostaglandin E2 agonist, aphosphodiesterasse 4 inhibitor, an HDAC inhibitor or a proteasomeinhibitor. In another embodiment, the mTOR inhibitor is rapamycin or ananalog thereof.

In one embodiment, the APC presentable antigen comprises an MHC classI-restricted and/or MHC class II-restricted and/or a B cell epitope. Inanother embodiment, the APC presentable antigen is a protein. In anotherembodiment, the APC presentable antigen is a polypeptide or peptidecomprising an MHC class I-restricted and/or MHC class II-restrictedand/or a B cell epitope. In another embodiment, the APC presentableantigen is a lipid that binds to CD1d. In one embodiment, the APCpresentable antigen is a therapeutic protein or portion thereof, anautoantigen or an allergen or is associated with an autoimmune disease,an inflammatory disease, an allergy, organ or tissue rejection or graftversus host disease.

In one embodiment, the load of the immunosuppressant and/or APCpresentable antigen on average across the population of first and/orsecond synthetic nanocarriers is between 0.0001% and 50%(weight/weight). In another embodiment, the load of theimmunosuppressant and/or APC presentable antigen on average across thepopulation of first and/or second synthetic nanocarriers is between 0.1%and 10% (weight/weight).

In one embodiment, the synthetic nanocarriers of the first and/or secondpopulation of synthetic nanocarriers comprise lipid nanoparticles,polymeric nanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, surfactant-basedemulsions, dendrimers, buckyballs, nanowires, virus-like particles orpeptide or protein particles.

In one embodiment, when the synthetic nanocarriers of the first and/orsecond population of synthetic nanocarriers comprise polymericnanoparticles, the polymeric nanoparticles comprise polymer that is anon-methoxy-terminated, pluronic polymer. In another embodiment, thepolymeric nanoparticles comprise a polyester, a polyester coupled to apolyether, polyamino acid, polycarbonate, polyacetal, polyketal,polysaccharide, polyethyloxazoline or polyethyleneimine. In anotherembodiment, the polyester comprises a poly(lactic acid), poly(glycolicacid), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) or polycaprolactone. In anotherembodiment, the polymeric nanoparticles comprise a polyester and apolyester coupled to a polyether. In another embodiment, the polyethercomprises polyethylene glycol or polypropylene glycol.

In another embodiment, the aspect ratios of the synthetic nanocarriersof the first and/or second population of synthetic nanocarriers isgreater than 1:1, 1:1.2, 1:1.5, 1:2, 1:3, 1:5, 1:7 or 1:10.

In another embodiment, the composition further comprises apharmaceutically acceptable excipient.

In another aspect, a dosage form comprising any of the compositionsprovided is provided.

In another aspect, a method comprising administering any of thecompositions or dosage forms provided herein to a subject is provided.In one embodiment, the subject is in need of antigen-specific tolerance.In another embodiment, the subject has an autoimmune disease, aninflammatory disease, an allergy, graft versus host disease, organ ortissue rejection or has undergone or will undergo transplantation. Inanother embodiment, the subject has received, is receiving or willreceive a therapeutic protein against which they have experienced, areexperiencing or are expected to experience an undesired immune response.

In another embodiment, any of the compositions or dosage forms providedmay be in or administered in an amount effective to result in atolerogenic immune response specific to the APC presentable antigen. Inanother embodiment, the dosage form is administered to the subjectaccording to a protocol that was previously shown to result in atolerogenic immune response specific to the APC presentable in one ormore test subjects.

In another embodiment of any of the compositions or dosage formsprovided, the composition may generate a desired immune response orreduce an undesired immune response, for example, in a subject.

In one embodiment, the method further comprises providing or identifyingthe subject. In another embodiment, the method further comprisesassessing the generation of the tolerogenic immune response specific tothe APC presentable antigen in the subject.

In one embodiment, the dosage form is administered by intravenous,transmucosal, intraperitoneal, oral, subcutaneous, pulmonary,intranasal, intradermal or intramuscular administration. In anotherembodiment, the administering is by inhalation or intravenous,subcutaneous or transmucosal administration.

In another aspect, any of the compositions or dosage forms provided maybe for use in therapy or prophylaxis.

In another aspect, any of the compositions or dosage forms provided maybe for use in therapy or prophylaxis in a subject who has undergone orwill undergo transplantation, or has received, is receiving or willreceive a therapeutic protein against which they have experienced, areexperiencing or are expected to experience an undesired immune response.

In another aspect, any of the compositions or dosage forms provided maybe for use in any of the methods provided.

In another aspect, any of the compositions or dosage forms provided maybe for use in a method of inducing a tolerogenic immune response.

In another aspect, any of the compositions or dosage forms provided maybe for use in a method of prophylaxis or treatment of an autoimmunedisease, an inflammatory disease, an allergy, organ or tissue rejection,graft versus host disease or an undesired immune response.

In another aspect, any of the compositions or dosage forms provided maybe for use in a method of therapy or prophylaxis comprisingadministration by any of the routes provided herein.

In another aspect, a use of any of the compositions or dosage formsprovided for the manufacture of a medicament for use in any of themethods provided is provided.

In an embodiment of any of the compositions and methods provided herein,the antigens are peptides. Such antigens, in some embodiments, compriseat least an epitope as described anywhere herein but may also compriseadditional amino acids that flank one or both ends of the epitope. Inembodiments, the antigens comprise a whole antigenic protein. Theseantigens may be coupled to synthetic nanocarriers.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 provides a representative example of a flow cytometric analysisof Treg cells.

FIG. 2 demonstrates the antigen-specific induction of FoxP3⁺ inCD4⁺CD25high Treg cells by tDC treated with nanocarrier encapsulatedrapamycin plus free ovalbumin peptide (323-339).

FIG. 3 shows antigen-specific induction of FoxP3⁺ in CD4⁺CD25high Tregcells.

FIG. 4 shows an effect on the number of antigen-specific effector Tcells and percentage of FoxP3+ cells with synthetic nanocarriers of theinvention comprising immunosuppressant (rapamycin or simvastatin).

FIG. 5 shows a decrease in the number of popliteal lymph node cells withsynthetic nanocarriers of the invention comprising immunosuppressant(rapamycin or simvastatin).

FIG. 6 demonstrates a reduction in CD69, a marker of T cell activation,with synthetic nanocarrier delivery of the immunosuppressant rapamycin.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Before describing the present invention in detail, it is to beunderstood that this invention is not limited to particularlyexemplified materials or process parameters as such may, of course,vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein isfor the purpose of describing particular embodiments of the inventiononly, and is not intended to be limiting of the use of alternativeterminology to describe the present invention.

All publications, patents and patent applications cited herein, whethersupra or infra, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entiretyfor all purposes.

As used in this specification and the appended claims, the singularforms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the contentclearly dictates otherwise. For example, reference to “a polymer”includes a mixture of two or more such molecules or a mixture ofdiffering molecular weights of a single polymer species, reference to “asynthetic nanocarrier” includes a mixture of two or more such syntheticnanocarriers or a plurality of such synthetic nanocarriers, reference to“a DNA molecule” includes a mixture of two or more such DNA molecules ora plurality of such DNA molecules, reference to “an immunosuppressant”includes a mixture of two or more such materials or a plurality ofimmunosuppressant molecules, and the like.

As used herein, the term “comprise” or variations thereof such as“comprises” or “comprising” are to be read to indicate the inclusion ofany recited integer (e.g. a feature, element, characteristic, property,method/process step or limitation) or group of integers (e.g. features,element, characteristics, properties, method/process steps orlimitations) but not the exclusion of any other integer or group ofintegers. Thus, as used herein, the term “comprising” is inclusive anddoes not exclude additional, unrecited integers or method/process steps.

In embodiments of any of the compositions and methods provided herein,“comprising” may be replaced with “consisting essentially of” or“consisting of”. The phrase “consisting essentially of” is used hereinto require the specified integer(s) or steps as well as those which donot materially affect the character or function of the claimedinvention. As used herein, the term “consisting” is used to indicate thepresence of the recited integer (e.g. a feature, element,characteristic, property, method/process step or limitation) or group ofintegers (e.g. features, element, characteristics, properties,method/process steps or limitations) alone.

A. INTRODUCTION

As previously mentioned, current conventional immunosuppressants arebroad acting and generally result in an overall systemic down regulationof the immune system. The compositions and methods provided herein allowfor more targeted immune effects by, for example, allowing for thetargeted delivery to immune cells of interest. Thus, the compositionsand methods can achieve immune suppression in a more directed manner. Asshown in the Examples, compositions of the invention were usedsuccessfully to result in the generation of regulatory cells and toreduce T cell activation as evidenced by reduction of CD69.

The inventors have unexpectedly and surprisingly discovered that theproblems and limitations noted above can be overcome by practicing theinvention disclosed herein. In particular, the inventors haveunexpectedly discovered that it is possible to provide compositions, andrelated methods, that provide immune suppression and, in someembodiments, antigen-specific tolerogenic effects. The compositionsdescribed herein are compositions that comprise 1) a population ofsynthetic nanocarriers to which an immunosuppressant is coupled and 2)an antigen presenting cell (APC) presentable antigen. The efficientuptake by APCs of such compositions is a convenient way in vivo and invitro to shift the immune response in favor of immune suppressiveeffects (e.g., tolerogenic effects), such as regulatory T (Treg) celldevelopment specific to the APC presentable antigen.

In one embodiment, the APC presentable antigen is coupled to the samesynthetic nanocarriers to which the immunosuppressant is coupled. Inanother embodiment, the APC presentable antigen is coupled to differentsynthetic nanocarriers. In still another embodiment, the APC presentableantigen is not coupled to a synthetic nanocarrier. In anotherembodiment, the immunosuppressant in the composition is in an amounteffective to generate a tolerogenic immune response to the APCpresentable antigen.

In still another embodiment, the load of the immunosuppressant onaverage across the population of synthetic nanocarriers is between0.0001% and 50% (weight/weight). In a further embodiment, the load ofthe APC presentable antigen on average across a population of syntheticnanocarriers is between 0.0001% and 50% (weight/weight). Preferably, insome embodiments, the load of the immunosuppressant on average acrossthe population of synthetic nanocarriers is between 0.1% and 10%(weight/weight) and/or the load of the APC presentable antigen onaverage across a population of synthetic nanocarriers is between 0.1%and 10% (weight/weight).

In another aspect, dosage forms of any of the compositions herein areprovided. Such dosage forms can be administered to a subject in needthereof, such as subjects in need of antigen-specific tolerance. In oneembodiment, the subject is one that has or is at risk of having anautoimmune disease, an inflammatory disease, organ or tissue rejection,graft versus host disease or an allergy. In another embodiment, thesubject is one that has undergone or will undergo transplantation. Instill another embodiment, the subject is one that has been or will betreated with a therapeutic agent that stimulates an undesired immuneresponse.

The invention will now be described in more detail below.

B. DEFINITIONS

“Administering” or “administration” means providing a material to asubject in a manner that is pharmacologically useful.

“Allergens” are any substances that can cause an undesired (e.g., a Type1 hypersensitive) immune response (i.e., an allergic response orreaction) in a subject.

Allergens include, but are not limited to, plant allergens (e.g.,pollen, ragweed allergen), insect allergens, insect sting allergens(e.g., bee sting allergens), animal allergens (e.g., pet allergens, suchas animal dander or cat Fel d 1 antigen), latex allergens, moldallergens, fungal allergens, cosmetic allergens, drug allergens, foodallergens, dust, insect venom, viruses, bacteria, etc. Food allergensinclude, but are not limited to milk allergens, egg allergens, nutallergens (e.g., peanut or tree nut allergens, etc. (e.g., walnuts,cashews, etc.)), fish allergens, shellfish allergens, soy allergens,legume allergens, seed allergens and wheat allergens. Insect stingallergens include allergens that are or are associated with bee stings,wasp stings, hornet stings, yellow jacket stings, etc. Insect allergensalso include house dust mite allergens (e.g., Der P1 antigen) andcockroach allergens. Drug allergens include allergens that are or areassociated with antibiotics, NSAIDs, anaesthetics, etc. Pollen allergensinclude grass allergens, tree allergens, weed allergens, flowerallergens, etc. Subjects that develop or are at risk of developing anundesired immune response to any of the allergens provided herein may betreated with any of the compositions and methods provided herein.Subjects that may be treated with any of the compositions and methodsprovided also include those who have or are at risk of having an allergyto any of the allergens provided.

An “allergy” also referred to herein as an “allergic condition,” is anycondition where there is an undesired (e.g., a Type 1 hypersensitive)immune response (i.e., allergic response or reaction) to a substance.Such substances are referred to herein as allergens. Allergies orallergic conditions include, but are not limited to, allergic asthma,hay fever, hives, eczema, plant allergies, bee sting allergies, petallergies, latex allergies, mold allergies, cosmetic allergies, foodallergies, allergic rhinitis or coryza, topic allergic reactions,anaphylaxis, atopic dermatitis, hypersensitivity reactions and otherallergic conditions. The allergic reaction may be the result of animmune reaction to any allergen. In some embodiments, the allergy is afood allergy. Food allergies include, but are not limited to, milkallergies, egg allergies, nut allergies, fish allergies, shellfishallergies, soy allergies or wheat allergies.

“Amount effective” in the context of a composition or dosage form foradministration to a subject refers to an amount of the composition ordosage form that produces one or more desired immune responses in thesubject, for example, the generation of a tolerogenic immune response.Therefore, in some embodiments, an amount effective is any amount of acomposition provided herein that produces one or more of these desiredimmune responses. This amount can be for in vitro or in vivo purposes.For in vivo purposes, the amount can be one that a clinician wouldbelieve may have a clinical benefit for a subject in need ofantigen-specific tolerization. Such subjects include those that have orare at risk of having an inflammatory disease, an autoimmune disease, anallergy, organ or tissue rejection or graft versus host disease. Suchsubjects also include those that have undergone or will undergotransplantation. Such subjects further include those that haveexperienced, are experiencing or are expected to experience an undesiredimmune response against a therapeutic protein.

Amounts effective can involve only reducing the level of an undesiredimmune response, although in some embodiments, it involves preventing anundesired immune response altogether. Amounts effective can also involvedelaying the occurrence of an undesired immune response. An amount thatis effective can also be an amount of a composition provided herein thatproduces a desired therapeutic endpoint or a desired therapeutic result.Amounts effective, preferably, result in a tolerogenic immune responsein a subject to an antigen. The achievement of any of the foregoing canbe monitored by routine methods.

In some embodiments of any of the compositions and methods provided, theamount effective is one in which the desired immune response persists inthe subject for at least 1 week, at least 2 weeks, at least 1 month, atleast 2 months, at least 3 months, at least 4 months, at least 5 months,at least 6 months, at least 9 months, at least 1 year, at least 2 years,at least 5 years, or longer. In other embodiments of any of thecompositions and methods provided, the amount effective is one whichproduces a measurable desired immune response, for example, a measurabledecrease in an immune response (e.g., to a specific antigen), for atleast 1 week, at least 2 weeks, at least 1 month, at least 2 months, atleast 3 months, at least 4 months, at least 5 months, at least 6 months,at least 9 months, at least 1 year, at least 2 years, at least 5 years,or longer.

Amounts effective will depend, of course, on the particular subjectbeing treated; the severity of a condition, disease or disorder; theindividual patient parameters including age, physical condition, sizeand weight; the duration of the treatment; the nature of concurrenttherapy (if any); the specific route of administration and like factorswithin the knowledge and expertise of the health practitioner. Thesefactors are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art and can beaddressed with no more than routine experimentation. It is generallypreferred that a maximum dose be used, that is, the highest safe doseaccording to sound medical judgment. It will be understood by those ofordinary skill in the art, however, that a patient may insist upon alower dose or tolerable dose for medical reasons, psychological reasonsor for virtually any other reason.

In general, doses of the immunosuppressants and/or antigens in thecompositions of the invention can range from about 10 μg/kg to about100,000 μg/kg. In some embodiments, the doses can range from about 0.1mg/kg to about 100 mg/kg. In still other embodiments, the doses canrange from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg, about 25 mg/kg to about 50mg/kg, about 50 mg/kg to about 75 mg/kg or about 75 mg/kg to about 100mg/kg. Alternatively, the dose can be administered based on the numberof synthetic nanocarriers that provide the desired amount ofimmunosuppressants and/or antigens. For example, useful doses includegreater than 10⁶, 10⁷, 10⁸, 10⁹ or 10¹⁰ synthetic nanocarriers per dose.Other examples of useful doses include from about 1×10⁶ to about 1×10¹⁰,about 1×10⁷ to about 1×10⁹ or about 1×10⁸ to about 1×10⁹ syntheticnanocarriers per dose.

“Antigen” means a B cell antigen or T cell antigen. “Type(s) ofantigens” means molecules that share the same, or substantially thesame, antigenic characteristics. In some embodiments, antigens may beproteins, polypeptides, peptides, lipoproteins, glycolipids,polynucleotides, polysaccharides or are contained or expressed in cells.In some embodiments, such as when the antigens are not well defined orcharacterized, the antigens may be contained within a cell or tissuepreparation, cell debris, cell exosomes, conditioned media, etc. Anantigen can be combined with the synthetic nanocarriers in the same formas what a subject is exposed to that causes an undesired immune responsebut may also be a fragment or derivative thereof. When a fragment orderivative, however, a desired immune response to the form encounteredby such a subject is the preferable result with the compositions andmethods provided.

“Antigen-specific” refers to any immune response that results from thepresence of the antigen, or portion thereof, or that generates moleculesthat specifically recognize or bind the antigen. For example, where theimmune response is antigen-specific antibody production, antibodies areproduced that specifically bind the antigen. As another example, wherethe immune response is antigen-specific B cell or T cell proliferationand/or activity, the proliferation and/or activity results fromrecognition of the antigen, or portion thereof, alone or in complex withMHC molecules, by B cells, etc.

“Antigens associated” with a disease, disorder or condition providedherein are antigens that can generate an undesired immune responseagainst, as a result of, or in conjunction with the disease, disorder orcondition; the cause of the disease, disorder or condition (or a symptomor effect thereof); and/or can generate an undesired immune responsethat is a symptom, result or effect of the disease, disorder orcondition. Preferably, in some embodiments, the use of an antigenassociated with a disease, disorder or condition, etc. in thecompositions and methods provided herein will lead to a tolerogenicimmune response against the antigen and/or the cells, by, on or in whichthe antigen is expressed. The antigens can be in the same form asexpressed in a subject with the disease, disorder or condition but mayalso be a fragment or derivative thereof. When a fragment or derivative,however, a desired immune response to the form expressed in such asubject is the preferable result with the compositions and methodsprovided. The antigens associated with a disease, disorder or condition,etc. in some embodiments, comprise MHC Class I-restricted epitopesand/or MHC Class II-restricted epitopes and/or B cell epitopes and/orcomprise a lipid that binds to and forms a CD1d complex.

In one embodiment, the antigen is an antigen associated with aninflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, organ or tissue rejection orgraft versus host disease. Such antigens include autoantigens, such asmyelin basic protein, collagen (e.g., collagen type 11), human cartilagegp 39, chromogranin A, gp130-RAPS, proteolipid protein, fibrillarin,nuclear proteins, nucleolar proteins (e.g., small nucleolar protein),thyroid stimulating factor receptor, histones, glycoprotein gp 70,ribosomal proteins, pyruvate dehydrogenase dehydrolipoamideacetyltransferase, hair follicle antigens, human tropomyosin isoform 5,mitochondrial proteins, pancreatic β-cell proteins, myelinoligodendrocyte glycoprotein, insulin, glutamic acid decarboxylase(GAD), gluten, and fragments or derivatives thereof. Other autoantigensare provided in Table 1 below.

Antigens also include those associated with organ or tissue rejection.Examples of such antigens include, but are not limited to, antigens fromallogeneic cells, e.g., antigens from an allogeneic cell extract andantigens from other cells, such as endothelial cell antigens.

Antigens also include those associated with an allergy. Such antigensinclude the allergens described elsewhere herein.

Antigens also include those associated with a transplantable graft. Suchantigens are associated with a transplantable graft, or an undesiredimmune response in a recipient of a transplantable graft that isgenerated as a result of the introduction of the transplantable graft inthe recipient, that can be presented for recognition by cells of theimmune system and that can generate an undesired immune response.Transplant antigens include those associated with organ or tissuerejection or graft versus host disease. Transplant antigens may beobtained or derived from cells of a biological material or frominformation related to a transplantable graft. Transplant antigensgenerally include proteins, polypeptides, peptides, lipoproteins,glycolipids, polynucleotides or are contained or expressed in cells.Information related to a transplantable graft is any information about atransplantable graft that can be used to obtain or derive transplantantigens. Such information includes information about antigens thatwould be expected to be present in or on cells of a transplantable graftsuch as, for example, sequence information, types or classes of antigensand/or their MHC Class I, MHC Class II or B cell presentationrestrictions. Such information may also include information about thetype of transplantable graft (e.g., autograft, allograft, xenograft),the molecular and cellular composition of the graft, the bodily locationfrom which the graft is derived or to which the graft is to betransplanted (e.g., whole or partial organ, skin, bone, nerves, tendon,neurons, blood vessels, fat, cornea, etc.).

Antigens also include antigens associated with a therapeutic proteinthat can be presented for recognition by cells of the immune system andthat can generate an undesired immune response against the therapeuticprotein. Therapeutic protein antigens generally include proteins,polypeptides, peptides, lipoproteins, or are contained or expressed in,by or on cells.

Antigens, can be antigens that are fully defined or characterized.However, in some embodiments, an antigen is not fully defined orcharacterized. Antigens, therefore, also include those that arecontained within a cell or tissue preparation, cell debris, cell exosomeor conditioned media and can be delivered in such form in someembodiments.

“APC presentable antigen” means an antigen that can be presented forrecognition by cells of the immune system, such as presented by antigenpresenting cells, including but not limited to dendritic cells, B cellsor macrophages. The APC presentable antigen can be presented forrecognition by, for example, T cells. Such antigens may be recognized byand trigger an immune response in a T cell via presentation of theantigen or portion thereof bound to a Class I or Class II majorhistocompatability complex molecule (MHC), or bound to a CD1d molecule.CD1d is an antigen-presenting molecule that binds self and foreignlipids and glycolipids, and is often found on antigen presenting cells.It is also found on non-hematopoietic cells such as hepatocytes. CD1dcontains a hydrophobic groove which binds hydrophobic lipids, usuallyfor presentation to iNKT cells. Preferably, one or more tolerogenicimmune responses specific to the APC presentable antigen results withthe compositions provided herein. Such immune responses can be affected,for example, via the stimulation, production, induction or recruitmentof regulatory cells, such as CD4⁺ Treg cells and/or CD8⁺ Treg cells.

APC presentable antigens generally include peptides, polypeptides, wholeproteins or whole cell lysates. In one embodiment, the APC presentableantigen comprises an MHC class I-restricted epitope. In anotherembodiment, the APC presentable antigen comprises an MHC classII-restricted epitope. In another embodiment, the APC presentableantigen comprises a B cell epitope. In another embodiment, however, theAPC presentable antigen is a lipid that binds to or forms a CD1dcomplex.

In further embodiments, the APC presentable antigens in the inventivecompositions are provided in the form of a nucleic acid that encodes thepeptide, polypeptide or protein. The nucleic acid may be DNA or RNA,such as mRNA. In embodiments, the inventive compositions comprise acomplement, such as a full-length complement, or a degenerate (due todegeneracy of the genetic code) of any of the nucleic acids providedherein. In embodiments, the nucleic acid is an expression vector thatcan be transcribed when transfected into a cell line. In embodiments,the expression vector may comprise a plasmid, retrovirus, or anadenovirus amongst others.

In one embodiment, the antigen is associated with a disease, disorder orcondition described herein and can in combination with animmunosuppressant lead to a tolerogenic immune response specific to thedisease, disorder or condition.

“Assessing an immune response” refers to any measurement ordetermination of the level, presence or absence, reduction, increase in,etc. of an immune response in vitro or in vivo. Such measurements ordeterminations may be performed on one or more samples obtained from asubject. Such assessing can be performed with any of the methodsprovided herein or otherwise known in the art.

An “at risk” subject is one in which a health practitioner believes hasa chance of having a disease, disorder or condition as provided hereinor is one a health practitioner believes has a chance of experiencing anundesired immune response as provided herein.

An “autoimmune disease” is any disease where the immune system mounts anundesired immune response against self (e.g., one or more autoantigens).In some embodiments, an autoimmune disease comprises an aberrantdestruction of cells of the body as part of the self-targeted immuneresponse. In some embodiments, the destruction of self manifests in themalfunction of an organ, for example, the colon or pancreas. Examples ofautoimmune diseases are described elsewhere herein. Additionalautoimmune diseases will be known to those of skill in the art and theinvention is not limited in this respect.

“Average”, as used herein, refers to the arithmetic mean unlessotherwise noted.

“B cell antigen” means any antigen that triggers an immune response in aB cell (e.g., an antigen that is specifically recognized by a B cell ora receptor thereon). In some embodiments, an antigen that is a T cellantigen is also a B cell antigen. In other embodiments, the T cellantigen is not also a B cell antigen. B cell antigens include, but arenot limited to proteins, peptides, small molecules, and carbohydrates.In some embodiments, the B cell antigen comprises a non-protein antigen(i.e., not a protein or peptide antigen). In some embodiments, the Bcell antigen comprises a autoantigen. In other embodiments, the B cellantigen is obtained or derived from an allergen, autoantigen,therapeutic protein, or transplantable graft.

“Concomitantly” means administering two or more substances to a subjectin a manner that is correlated in time, preferably sufficientlycorrelated in time so as to provide a modulation in an immune response.In embodiments, concomitant administration may occur throughadministration of two or more substances in the same dosage form. Inother embodiments, concomitant administration may encompassadministration of two or more substances in different dosage forms, butwithin a specified period of time, preferably within 1 month, morepreferably within 1 week, still more preferably within 1 day, and evenmore preferably within 1 hour.

“Couple” or “Coupled” or “Couples” (and the like) means to chemicallyassociate one entity (for example a moiety) with another. In someembodiments, the coupling is covalent, meaning that the coupling occursin the context of the presence of a covalent bond between the twoentities. In non-covalent embodiments, the non-covalent coupling ismediated by non-covalent interactions including but not limited tocharge interactions, affinity interactions, metal coordination, physicaladsorption, host-guest interactions, hydrophobic interactions, TTstacking interactions, hydrogen bonding interactions, van der Waalsinteractions, magnetic interactions, electrostatic interactions,dipole-dipole interactions, and/or combinations thereof. In embodiments,encapsulation is a form of coupling.

“Dosage form” means a pharmacologically and/or immunologically activematerial in a medium, carrier, vehicle, or device suitable foradministration to a subject.

“Encapsulate” means to enclose at least a portion of a substance withina synthetic nanocarrier. In some embodiments, a substance is enclosedcompletely within a synthetic nanocarrier. In other embodiments, most orall of a substance that is encapsulated is not exposed to the localenvironment external to the synthetic nanocarrier. In other embodiments,no more than 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10% or 5% (weight/weight) is exposed tothe local environment. Encapsulation is distinct from absorption, whichplaces most or all of a substance on a surface of a syntheticnanocarrier, and leaves the substance exposed to the local environmentexternal to the synthetic nanocarrier.

“Epitope”, also known as an antigenic determinant, is the part of anantigen that is recognized by the immune system, specifically by, forexample, antibodies, B cells, or T cells. As used herein, “MHC ClassI-restricted epitopes” are epitopes that are presented to immune cellsby MHC class 1 molecules found on nucleated cells. “MHC ClassII-restricted epitopes” are epitopes that are presented to immune cellsby MHC class II molecules found on antigen presenting cells (APCs), forexample, on professional antigen-presenting immune cells, such as onmacrophages, B cells, and dendritic cells, or on non-hematopoieticcells, such as hepatocytes. “B cell epitopes” are molecular structuresthat are recognized by antibodies or B cells. In some embodiments, theepitope itself is an antigen.

A number of epitopes are known to those of skill in the art, andexemplary epitopes suitable according to some aspects of this inventioninclude, but are not limited to those listed in the Immune EpitopeDatabase (www.immuneepitope.org, Vita R, Zarebski L, Greenbaum J A,Emami H, Hoof I, Salimi N, Damle R, Sette A, Peters B. The immuneepitope database 2.0. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010 January; 38(Databaseissue):D854-62; the entire contents of which as well as all databaseentries of IEDB version 2.4, August 2011, and particularly all epitopesdisclosed therein, are incorporated herein by reference). Epitopes canalso be identified with publicly available algorithms, for example, thealgorithms described in Wang P, Sidney J, Kim Y, Sette A, Lund O,Nielsen M, Peters B. 2010. peptide binding predictions for HLA DR, DPand DQ molecules. BMC Bioinformatics 2010, 11:568; Wang P, Sidney J, DowC, Motile B, Sette A, Peters B. 2008. A systematic assessment of MHCclass II peptide binding predictions and evaluation of a consensusapproach. PLoS Comput Biol. 4(4):e1000048; Nielsen M, Lund 0.2009.NN-align. An artificial neural network-based alignment algorithm for MHCclass II peptide binding prediction. BMC Bioinformatics. 10:296; NielsenM, Lundegaard C, Lund 0.2007. Prediction of MHC class II bindingaffinity using SMM-align, a novel stabilization matrix alignment method.BMC Bioinformatics. 8:238; Bui H H, Sidney J, Peters B, Sathiamurthy M,Sinichi A, Purton K A, Motile B R, Chisari F V, Watkins D I, Sette A.2005. Immunogenetics. 57:304-314; Sturniolo T, Bono E, Ding J,Raddrizzani L, Tuereci O, Sahin U, Braxenthaler M, Gallazzi F, Protti MP, Sinigaglia F, Hammer J. 1999. Generation of tissue-specific andpromiscuous HLA ligand databases using DNA microarrays and virtual HLAclass II matrices. Nat. Biotechnol. 17(6):555-561; Nielsen M, LundegaardC, Worning P, Lauemoller S L, Lamberth K, Buus S, Brunak S, Lund O.2003. Reliable prediction of T-cell epitopes using neural networks withnovel sequence representations. Protein Sci 12:1007-1017; Bui H H,Sidney J, Peters B, Sathiamurthy M, Sinichi A, Purton K A, Mothe B R,Chisari F V, Watkins D I, Sette A. 2005. Automated generation andevaluation of specific MHC binding predictive tools: ARB matrixapplications. Immunogenetics 57:304-314; Peters B, Sette A. 2005.Generating quantitative models describing the sequence specificity ofbiological processes with the stabilized matrix method. BMCBioinformatics 6:132; Chou P Y, Fasman G D. 1978. Prediction of thesecondary structure of proteins from their amino acid sequence. AdvEnzymol Relat Areas Mol Biol 47:45-148; Emini E A, Hughes J V, Perlow DS, Boger J. 1985. Induction of hepatitis A virus-neutralizing antibodyby a virus-specific synthetic peptide. J Virol 55:836-839; Karplus P A,Schulz G E. 1985. Prediction of chain flexibility in proteins.Naturwissenschaften 72:212-213; Kolaskar A S, Tongaonkar P C. 1990. Asemi-empirical method for prediction of antigenic determinants onprotein antigens. FEBS Lett276:172-174; Parker J M, Guo D, Hodges R S.1986. New hydrophilicity scale derived from high-performance liquidchromatography peptide retention data: correlation of predicted surfaceresidues with antigenicity and X-ray-derived accessible sites.Biochemistry 25:5425-5432; Larsen J E, Lund O, Nielsen M. 2006. Improvedmethod for predicting linear B-cell epitopes. Immunome Res 2:2;Ponomarenko J V, Bourne P E. 2007. Antibody-protein interactions:benchmark datasets and prediction tools evaluation. BMC Struct Biol7:64; Haste Andersen P, Nielsen M, Lund 0.2006. Prediction of residuesin discontinuous B-cell epitopes using protein 3D structures. ProteinSci 15:2558-2567; Ponomarenko J V, Bui H, Li W, Fusseder N, Bourne P E,Sette A, Peters B. 2008. ElliPro: a new structure-based tool for theprediction of antibody epitopes. BMC Bioinformatics 9:514; Nielsen M,Lundegaard C, Blicher T, Peters B, Sette A, Justesen S, Buus S, and Lund0.2008. PLoS Comput Biol. 4(7)e1000107. Quantitative predictions ofpeptide binding to any HLA-DR molecule of known sequence: NetMHClIpan;the entire contents of each of which are incorporated herein byreference for disclosure of methods and algorithms for theidentification of epitopes.

Other examples of epitopes that can be coupled to synthetic nanocarriersprovided herein include any of the MHC Class I-restricted, MHC ClassII-restricted and B cell epitopes as provided as SEQ ID NOs: 1-943.Without wishing to being bound by any particular theory, MHC ClassI-restricted epitopes include those set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1-186, MHCClass II-restricted epitopes include those set forth in SEQ ID NOs:187-537, and B cell epitopes include those set forth in SEQ ID NOs:538-943. These epitopes include MHC Class I-restricted autoantigens, MHCClass II-restricted epitopes of allergens and B cell epitopes ofautoantigens and allergens.

“Generating” means causing an action, such as an immune response (e.g.,a tolerogenic immune response) to occur, either directly oneself orindirectly, such as, but not limited to, an unrelated third party thattakes an action through reliance on one's words or deeds.

“Identifying” is any action or set of actions that allows a clinician torecognize a subject as one who may benefit from the methods andcompositions provided herein. Preferably, the identified subject is onewho is in need of a tolerogenic immune response as provided herein. Theaction or set of actions may be either directly oneself or indirectly,such as, but not limited to, an unrelated third party that takes anaction through reliance on one's words or deeds.

“Immunosuppressant” means a compound that causes an APC to have animmunosuppressive (e.g., tolerogenic effect). An immunosuppressiveeffect generally refers to the production or expression of cytokines orother factors by the APC that reduces, inhibits or prevents an undesiredimmune response or that promotes a desired immune response. When the APCresults in an immunosuppressive effect on immune cells that recognize anantigen presented by the APC, the immunosuppressive effect is said to bespecific to the presented antigen. Such effect is also referred toherein as a tolerogenic effect. Without being bound by any particulartheory, it is thought that the immunosuppressive is a result of theimmunosuppressant being delivered to the APC, preferably in the presenceof an antigen (e.g., an administered antigen or one that is alreadypresent in vivo). Accordingly, the immunosuppressant includes compoundsthat provide a tolerogenic immune response to an antigen that may or maynot be provided in the same composition or a different composition. Inone embodiment, the immunosuppressant is one that causes an APC topromote a regulatory phenotype in one or more immune effector cells. Forexample, the regulatory phenotype may be characterized by theproduction, induction, stimulation or recruitment of regulatory immunecells. This may be the result of the conversion of CD4+ T cells (e.g.,CD4+CD25highFoxP3+ Treg cells) to a regulatory phenotype. This may alsobe the result of induction of FoxP3 in other immune cells, such as CD8+T cells, macrophages and iNKT cells. In one embodiment, theimmunosuppressant is one that affects the response of the APC after itprocesses an antigen. In another embodiment, the immunosuppressant isnot one that interferes with the processing of the antigen. In a furtherembodiment, the immunosuppressant is not an apoptotic-signalingmolecule. In another embodiment, the immunosuppressant is not aphospholipid.

Immunosuppressants include, but are not limited to, statins; mTORinhibitors, such as rapamycin or a rapamycin analog; TGF-β signalingagents; TGF-β receptor agonists; histone deacetylase inhibitors, such asTrichostatin A; corticosteroids; inhibitors of mitochondrial function,such as rotenone; P38 inhibitors; NF-κβ inhibitors, such as 6Bio,Dexamethasone, TCPA-1, IKK VII; adenosine receptor agonists;prostaglandin E2 agonists (PGE2), such as Misoprostol; phosphodiesteraseinhibitors, such as phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor (PDE4), such asRolipram; proteasome inhibitors; kinase inhibitors; G-protein coupledreceptor agonists; G-protein coupled receptor antagonists;glucocorticoids; retinoids; cytokine inhibitors; cytokine receptorinhibitors; cytokine receptor activators; peroxisomeproliferator-activated receptor antagonists; peroxisomeproliferator-activated receptor agonists; histone deacetylaseinhibitors; calcineurin inhibitors; phosphatase inhibitors; PI3 KBinhibitors, such as TGX-221; autophagy inhibitors, such as3-Methyladenine; aryl hydrocarbon receptor inhibitors; proteasomeinhibitor I (PSI); and oxidized ATPs, such as P2X receptor blockers.Immunosuppressants also include IDO, vitamin D3, cyclosporins, such ascyclosporine A, aryl hydrocarbon receptor inhibitors, resveratrol,azathiopurine (Aza), 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP), 6-thioguanine (6-TG),FK506, sanglifehrin A, salmeterol, mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), aspirinand other COX inhibitors, niflumic acid, estriol and triptolide. Inembodiments, the immunosuppressant may comprise any of the agentsprovided herein.

The immunosuppressant can be a compound that directly provides theimmunosuppressive (e.g., tolerogenic) effect on APCs or it can be acompound that provides the immunosuppressive (e.g., tolerogenic) effectindirectly (i.e., after being processed in some way afteradministration). Immunosuppressants, therefore, include prodrug forms ofany of the compounds provided herein.

Immunosuppressants also include nucleic acids that encode the peptides,polypeptides or proteins provided herein that result in animmunosuppressive (e.g., tolerogenic) immune response. In embodiments,therefore, the immunosuppressant is a nucleic acid that encodes apeptide, polypeptide or protein that results in an immunosuppressive(e.g., tolerogenic) immune response, and it is the nucleic acid that iscoupled to the synthetic nanocarrier.

The nucleic acid may be DNA or RNA, such as mRNA. In embodiments, theinventive compositions comprise a complement, such as a full-lengthcomplement, or a degenerate (due to degeneracy of the genetic code) ofany of the nucleic acids provided herein. In embodiments, the nucleicacid is an expression vector that can be transcribed when transfectedinto a cell line. In embodiments, the expression vector may comprise aplasmid, retrovirus, or an adenovirus amongst others. Nucleic acids canbe isolated or synthesized using standard molecular biology approaches,for example by using a polymerase chain reaction to produce a nucleicacid fragment, which is then purified and cloned into an expressionvector. Additional techniques useful in the practice of this inventionmay be found in Current Protocols in Molecular Biology 2007 by JohnWiley and Sons, Inc.; Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (ThirdEdition) Joseph Sambrook, Peter MacCallum Cancer Institute, Melbourne,Australia; David Russell, University of Texas Southwestern MedicalCenter, Dallas, Cold Spring Harbor.

In embodiments, the immunosuppressants provided herein are coupled tosynthetic nanocarriers. In preferable embodiments, the immunosuppressantis an element that is in addition to the material that makes up thestructure of the synthetic nanocarrier. For example, in one embodiment,where the synthetic nanocarrier is made up of one or more polymers, theimmunosuppressant is a compound that is in addition and coupled to theone or more polymers. As another example, in one embodiment, where thesynthetic nanocarrier is made up of one or more lipids, theimmunosuppressant is again in addition and coupled to the one or morelipids. In embodiments, such as where the material of the syntheticnanocarrier also results in an immunosuppressive (e.g., tolerogenic)effect, the immunosuppressant is an element present in addition to thematerial of the synthetic nanocarrier that results in animmunosuppressive (e.g., tolerogenic) effect.

Other exemplary immunosuppressants include, but are not limited, smallmolecule drugs, natural products, antibodies (e.g., antibodies againstCD20, CD3, CD4), biologics-based drugs, carbohydrate-based drugs,nanoparticles, liposomes, RNAi, antisense nucleic acids, aptamers,methotrexate, NSAIDs; fingolimod; natalizumab; alemtuzumab; anti-CD3;tacrolimus (FK506), etc. Further immunosuppressants, are known to thoseof skill in the art, and the invention is not limited in this respect.

“Inflammatory disease” means any disease, disorder or condition in whichundesired inflammation occurs.

“Load” of the immunosuppressant or antigen is the amount of theimmunosuppressant or antigen coupled to a synthetic nanocarrier based onthe total weight of materials in an entire synthetic nanocarrier(weight/weight). Generally, the load is calculated as an average acrossa population of synthetic nanocarriers. In one embodiment, the load ofthe immunosuppressant on average across the first population ofsynthetic nanocarriers is between 0.0001% and 50%. In anotherembodiment, the load of the antigen on average across the first and/orsecond population of synthetic nanocarriers is between 0.0001% and 50%.In yet another embodiment, the load of the immunosuppressant and/orantigen is between 0.01% and 20%. In a further embodiment, the load ofthe immunosuppressant and/or antigen is between 0.1% and 10%. In still afurther embodiment, the load of the immunosuppressant and/or antigen isbetween 1% and 10%. In yet another embodiment, the load of theimmunosuppressant and/or the antigen is at least 0.1%, at least 0.2%, atleast 0.3%, at least 0.4%, at least 0.5%, at least 0.6%, at least 0.7%,at least 0.8%, at least 0.9%, at least 1%, at least 2%, at least 3%, atleast 4%, at least 5%, at least 6%, at least 7%, at least 8%, at least9%, at least 10%, at least 11%, at least 12%, at least 13%, at least14%, at least 15%, at least 16%, at least 17%, at least 18%, at least19% or at least 20% on average across a population of syntheticnanocarriers. In yet a further embodiment, the load of theimmunosuppressant and/or the antigen is 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%,0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%,12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19% or 20% on average across apopulation of synthetic nanocarriers. In some embodiments of the aboveembodiments, the load of the immunosuppressant and/or the antigen is nomore than 25% on average across a population of synthetic nanocarriers.In embodiments, the load is calculated as described in the Examples.

In embodiments of any of the compositions and methods provided, the loadis calculated as follows: Approximately 3 mg of synthetic nanocarriersare collected and centrifuged to separate supernatant from syntheticnanocarrier pellet. Acetonitrile is added to the pellet, and the sampleis sonicated and centrifuged to remove any insoluble material. Thesupernatant and pellet are injected on RP-HPLC and absorbance is read at278 nm. The μg found in the pellet is used to calculate % entrapped(load), μg in supernatant and pellet are used to calculate totall μgrecovered.

“Maintenance dose” refers to a dose that is administered to a subject,after an initial dose has resulted in an immunosuppressive (e.g.,tolerogenic) response in a subject, to sustain a desiredimmunosuppressive (e.g., tolerogenic) response. A maintenance dose, forexample, can be one that maintains the tolerogenic effect achieved afterthe initial dose, prevents an undesired immune response in the subject,or prevents the subject becoming a subject at risk of experiencing anundesired immune response, including an undesired level of an immuneresponse. In some embodiments, the maintenance dose is one that issufficient to sustain an appropriate level of a desired immune response.

“Maximum dimension of a synthetic nanocarrier” means the largestdimension of a nanocarrier measured along any axis of the syntheticnanocarrier. “Minimum dimension of a synthetic nanocarrier” means thesmallest dimension of a synthetic nanocarrier measured along any axis ofthe synthetic nanocarrier. For example, for a spheroidal syntheticnanocarrier, the maximum and minimum dimension of a syntheticnanocarrier would be substantially identical, and would be the size ofits diameter. Similarly, for a cuboidal synthetic nanocarrier, theminimum dimension of a synthetic nanocarrier would be the smallest ofits height, width or length, while the maximum dimension of a syntheticnanocarrier would be the largest of its height, width or length. In anembodiment, a minimum dimension of at least 75%, preferably at least80%, more preferably at least 90%, of the synthetic nanocarriers in asample, based on the total number of synthetic nanocarriers in thesample, is equal to or greater than 100 nm. In an embodiment, a maximumdimension of at least 75%, preferably at least 80%, more preferably atleast 90%, of the synthetic nanocarriers in a sample, based on the totalnumber of synthetic nanocarriers in the sample, is equal to or less than5 μm. Preferably, a minimum dimension of at least 75%, preferably atleast 80%, more preferably at least 90%, of the synthetic nanocarriersin a sample, based on the total number of synthetic nanocarriers in thesample, is greater than 110 nm, more preferably greater than 120 nm,more preferably greater than 130 nm, and more preferably still greaterthan 150 nm. Aspects ratios of the maximum and minimum dimensions ofinventive synthetic nanocarriers may vary depending on the embodiment.For instance, aspect ratios of the maximum to minimum dimensions of thesynthetic nanocarriers may vary from 1:1 to 1,000,000:1, preferably from1:1 to 100,000:1, more preferably from 1:1 to 10,000:1, more preferablyfrom 1:1 to 1000:1, still more preferably from 1:1 to 100:1, and yetmore preferably from 1:1 to 10:1. Preferably, a maximum dimension of atleast 75%, preferably at least 80%, more preferably at least 90%, of thesynthetic nanocarriers in a sample, based on the total number ofsynthetic nanocarriers in the sample is equal to or less than 3 μm, morepreferably equal to or less than 2 μm, more preferably equal to or lessthan 1 μm, more preferably equal to or less than 800 nm, more preferablyequal to or less than 600 nm, and more preferably still equal to or lessthan 500 nm. In preferred embodiments, a minimum dimension of at least75%, preferably at least 80%, more preferably at least 90%, of thesynthetic nanocarriers in a sample, based on the total number ofsynthetic nanocarriers in the sample, is equal to or greater than 100nm, more preferably equal to or greater than 120 nm, more preferablyequal to or greater than 130 nm, more preferably equal to or greaterthan 140 nm, and more preferably still equal to or greater than 150 nm.Measurement of synthetic nanocarrier dimensions (e.g., diameter) isobtained by suspending the synthetic nanocarriers in a liquid (usuallyaqueous) media and using dynamic light scattering (DLS) (e.g. using aBrookhaven ZetaPALS instrument). For example, a suspension of syntheticnanocarriers can be diluted from an aqueous buffer into purified waterto achieve a final synthetic nanocarrier suspension concentration ofapproximately 0.01 to 0.1 mg/mL. The diluted suspension may be prepareddirectly inside, or transferred to, a suitable cuvette for DLS analysis.The cuvette may then be placed in the DLS, allowed to equilibrate to thecontrolled temperature, and then scanned for sufficient time to acquirea stable and reproducible distribution based on appropriate inputs forviscosity of the medium and refractive indicies of the sample. Theeffective diameter, or mean of the distribution, is then reported.“Dimension” or “size” or “diameter” of synthetic nanocarriers means themean of a particle size distribution obtained using dynamic lightscattering.

“MHC” refers to major histocompatibility complex, a large genomic regionor gene family found in most vertebrates that encodes MHC molecules thatdisplay fragments or epitopes of processed proteins on the cell surface.The presentation of MHC:peptide on cell surfaces allows for surveillanceby immune cells, usually a T cell. There are two general classes of MHCmolecules: Class I and Class II. Generally, Class I MHC molecules arefound on nucleated cells and present peptides to cytotoxic T cells.Class II MHC molecules are found on certain immune cells, chieflymacrophages, B cells and dendritic cells, collectively known asprofessional APCs. The best-known genes in the MHC region are the subsetthat encodes antigen-presenting proteins on the cell surface. In humans,these genes are referred to as human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes.

“Non-methoxy-terminated polymer” means a polymer that has at least oneterminus that ends with a moiety other than methoxy. In someembodiments, the polymer has at least two termini that ends with amoiety other than methoxy. In other embodiments, the polymer has notermini that ends with methoxy. “Non-methoxy-terminated, pluronicpolymer” means a polymer other than a linear pluronic polymer withmethoxy at both termini. Polymeric nanoparticles as provided herein cancomprise non-methoxy-terminated polymers or non-methoxy-terminated,pluronic polymers.

“Pharmaceutically acceptable excipient” means a pharmacologicallyinactive material used together with the recited synthetic nanocarriersto formulate the inventive compositions. Pharmaceutically acceptableexcipients comprise a variety of materials known in the art, includingbut not limited to saccharides (such as glucose, lactose, and the like),preservatives such as antimicrobial agents, reconstitution aids,colorants, saline (such as phosphate buffered saline), and buffers.

“Protocol” refers to any dosing regimen of one or more substances to asubject. A dosing regimen may include the amount, frequency and/or modeof administration. In some embodiments, such a protocol may be used toadminister one or more compositions of the invention to one or more testsubjects. Immune responses in these test subject can then be assessed todetermine whether or not the protocol was effective in reducing anundesired immune response or generating a desired immune response (e.g.,the promotion of a tolerogenic effect). Any other therapeutic and/orprophylactic effect may also be assessed instead of or in addition tothe aforementioned immune responses. Whether or not a protocol had adesired effect can be determined using any of the methods providedherein or otherwise known in the art. For example, a population of cellsmay be obtained from a subject to which a composition provided hereinhas been administered according to a specific protocol in order todetermine whether or not specific immune cells, cytokines, antibodies,etc. were reduced, generated, activated, etc. Useful methods fordetecting the presence and/or number of immune cells include, but arenot limited to, flow cytometric methods (e.g., FACS) andimmunohistochemistry methods. Antibodies and other binding agents forspecific staining of immune cell markers, are commercially available.Such kits typically include staining reagents for multiple antigens thatallow for FACS-based detection, separation and/or quantitation of adesired cell population from a heterogeneous population of cells.

“Providing a subject” is any action or set of actions that causes aclinician to come in contact with a subject and administer a compositionprovided herein thereto or to perform a method provided hereinthereupon. Preferably, the subject is one who is in need of atolerogenic immune response as provided herein. The action or set ofactions may be either directly oneself or indirectly, such as, but notlimited to, an unrelated third party that takes an action throughreliance on one's words or deeds.

“Subject” means animals, including warm blooded mammals such as humansand primates; avians; domestic household or farm animals such as cats,dogs, sheep, goats, cattle, horses and pigs; laboratory animals such asmice, rats and guinea pigs; fish; reptiles; zoo and wild animals; andthe like.

“Synthetic nanocarrier(s)” means a discrete object that is not found innature, and that possesses at least one dimension that is less than orequal to 5 microns in size.

Albumin nanoparticles are generally included as synthetic nanocarriers,however in certain embodiments the synthetic nanocarriers do notcomprise albumin nanoparticles. In embodiments, inventive syntheticnanocarriers do not comprise chitosan. In other embodiments, inventivesynthetic nanocarriers are not lipid-based nanoparticles. In furtherembodiments, inventive synthetic nanocarriers do not comprise aphospholipid.

A synthetic nanocarrier can be, but is not limited to, one or aplurality of lipid-based nanoparticles (also referred to herein as lipidnanoparticles, i.e., nanoparticles where the majority of the materialthat makes up their structure are lipids), polymeric nanoparticles,metallic nanoparticles, surfactant-based emulsions, dendrimers,buckyballs, nanowires, virus-like particles (i.e., particles that areprimarily made up of viral structural proteins but that are notinfectious or have low infectivity), peptide or protein-based particles(also referred to herein as protein particles, i.e., particles where themajority of the material that makes up their structure are peptides orproteins) (such as albumin nanoparticles) and/or nanoparticles that aredeveloped using a combination of nanomaterials such as lipid-polymernanoparticles. Synthetic nanocarriers may be a variety of differentshapes, including but not limited to spheroidal, cuboidal, pyramidal,oblong, cylindrical, toroidal, and the like. Synthetic nanocarriersaccording to the invention comprise one or more surfaces. Exemplarysynthetic nanocarriers that can be adapted for use in the practice ofthe present invention comprise: (1) the biodegradable nanoparticlesdisclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,543,158 to Gref et al., (2) the polymericnanoparticles of Published US Patent Application 20060002852 to Saltzmanet al., (3) the lithographically constructed nanoparticles of PublishedUS Patent Application 20090028910 to DeSimone et al., (4) the disclosureof WO 2009/051837 to von Andrian et al., (5) the nanoparticles disclosedin Published US Patent Application 2008/0145441 to Penades et al., (6)the protein nanoparticles disclosed in Published US Patent Application20090226525 to de los Rios et al., (7) the virus-like particlesdisclosed in published US Patent Application 20060222652 to Sebbel etal., (8) the nucleic acid coupled virus-like particles disclosed inpublished US Patent Application 20060251677 to Bachmann et al., (9) thevirus-like particles disclosed in WO2010047839A1 or WO2009106999A2, (10)the nanoprecipitated nanoparticles disclosed in P. Paolicelli et al.,“Surface-modified PLGA-based Nanoparticles that can EfficientlyAssociate and Deliver Virus-like Particles” Nanomedicine. 5(6):843-853(2010), or (11) apoptotic cells, apoptotic bodies or the synthetic orsemisynthetic mimics disclosed in U.S. Publication 2002/0086049. Inembodiments, synthetic nanocarriers may possess an aspect ratio greaterthan 1:1, 1:1.2, 1:1.5, 1:2, 1:3, 1:5, 1:7, or greater than 1:10.

Synthetic nanocarriers according to the invention that have a minimumdimension of equal to or less than about 100 nm, preferably equal to orless than 100 nm, do not comprise a surface with hydroxyl groups thatactivate complement or alternatively comprise a surface that consistsessentially of moieties that are not hydroxyl groups that activatecomplement. In a preferred embodiment, synthetic nanocarriers accordingto the invention that have a minimum dimension of equal to or less thanabout 100 nm, preferably equal to or less than 100 nm, do not comprise asurface that substantially activates complement or alternativelycomprise a surface that consists essentially of moieties that do notsubstantially activate complement. In a more preferred embodiment,synthetic nanocarriers according to the invention that have a minimumdimension of equal to or less than about 100 nm, preferably equal to orless than 100 nm, do not comprise a surface that activates complement oralternatively comprise a surface that consists essentially of moietiesthat do not activate complement. In embodiments, synthetic nanocarriersexclude virus-like particles. In embodiments, synthetic nanocarriers maypossess an aspect ratio greater than 1:1, 1:1.2, 1:1.5, 1:2, 1:3, 1:5,1:7, or greater than 1:10.

“T cell antigen” means a CD4+ T-cell antigen, CD8+ cell antigen or aCD1d-restricted antigen. “CD4+ T-cell antigen” means any antigen that isrecognized by and triggers an immune response in a CD4+ T-cell e.g., anantigen that is specifically recognized by a T-cell receptor on a CD4+ Tcell via presentation of the antigen or portion thereof bound to a ClassII major histocompatability complex molecule (MHC). “CD8+ T cellantigen” means any antigen that is recognized by and triggers an immuneresponse in a CD8+ T-cell e.g., an antigen that is specificallyrecognized by a T-cell receptor on a CD8+ T cell via presentation of theantigen or portion thereof bound to a Class I major histocompatabilitycomplex molecule (MHC). “CD1d-restricted antigen” means an antigen thatcomprise one or more epitopes that bind to, complex to or are presentedby CD1d molecules. Generally, CD1d-restricted T cell antigens are lipidspresented to invariant NKT cells. CD1d-restricted T cell antigens maycomprise one or more lipids, or glycolipids, including but not limitedto: α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer), α-linked glycosphingolipids (fromSphingomonas spp.), galactosyl diacylglycerols (from Borreliaburgdorferi), lypophosphoglycan (from Leishmania donovani), endogenousor exogenous β-glucosylceramide, and phosphatidylinositol tetramannoside(PIM4) (from Mycobacterium leprae). For additional lipids and/orglycolipids useful as a CD1d-restricted antigens, see V. Cerundolo etal., “Harnessing invariant NKT cells in vaccination strategies.” NatureRev Immun, 9:28-38 (2009). In some embodiments, an antigen that is a Tcell antigen is also a B cell antigen. In other embodiments, the T cellantigen is not also a B cell antigen. T cell antigens generally areproteins or peptides, but may be other molecules such as lipids andglycolipids.

A “therapeutic protein” refers to any protein or protein-based therapythat may be administered to a subject and have a therapeutic effect.Such therapies include protein replacement and protein supplementationtherapies. Such therapies also include the administration of exogenousor foreign protein, antibody therapies, and cell or cell-basedtherapies. Therapeutic proteins include enzymes, enzyme cofactors,hormones, blood clotting factors, cytokines, growth factors, monoclonalantibodies and polyclonal antibodies. Examples of other therapeuticproteins are provided elsewhere herein. Therapeutic proteins may beproduced in, on or by cells and may be obtained from such cells oradministered in the form of such cells. In embodiments, the therapeuticprotein is produced in, on or by mammalian cells, insect cells, yeastcells, bacteria cells, plant cells, transgenic animal cells, transgenicplant cells, etc. The therapeutic protein may be recombinantly producedin such cells. The therapeutic protein may be produced in, on or by avirally transformed cell. The therapeutic protein may also be producedin, on or by autologous cells that have been transfected, transduced orotherwise manipulated to express it. Alternatively, the therapeuticprotein may be administered as a nucleic acid or by introducing anucleic acid into a virus, VLP, liposome, etc. Alternatively, thetherapeutic protein may be obtained from such forms and administered asthe therapeutic protein itself. Subjects, therefore, include any subjectthat has received, is receiving or will receive any of the foregoing.Such subject includes subjects that have received, is receiving or willreceive gene therapy; autologous cells that have been transfected,transduced or otherwise manipulated to express a therapeutic protein,polypeptide or peptide; or cells that express a therapeutic protein,polypeptide or peptide.

“Therapeutic protein antigen” means an antigen that is associated with atherapeutic protein that can be, or a portion of which can be, presentedfor recognition by cells of the immune system and can generate anundesired immune response (e.g., the production of therapeuticprotein-specific antibodies) against the therapeutic protein.Therapeutic protein antigens generally include proteins, polypeptides,peptides, lipoproteins, or are contained or expressed in, on or bycells.

“Tolerogenic immune response” means any immune response that can lead toimmune suppression specific to an antigen or a cell, tissue, organ, etc.that expresses such an antigen. Such immune responses include anyreduction, delay or inhibition in an undesired immune response specificto the antigen or cell, tissue, organ, etc. that expresses such antigen.Such immune responses also include any stimulation, production,induction, promotion or recruitment in a desired immune responsespecific to the antigen or cell, tissue, organ, etc. that expresses suchantigen. Tolerogenic immune responses, therefore, include the absence ofor reduction in an undesired immune response to an antigen that can bemediated by antigen reactive cells as well as the presence or promotionof suppressive cells. Tolerogenic immune responses as provided hereininclude immunological tolerance. To “generate a tolerogenic immuneresponse” refers to the generation of any of the foregoing immuneresponses specific to an antigen or cell, tissue, organ, etc. thatexpresses such antigen. The tolerogenic immune response can be theresult of MHC Class I-restricted presentation and/or MHC ClassII-restricted presentation and/or B cell presentation and/orpresentation by CD1d, etc.

Tolerogenic immune responses include any reduction, delay or inhibitionin CD4+ T cell, CD8+ T cell or B cell proliferation and/or activity.Tolerogenic immune responses also include a reduction inantigen-specific antibody production. Tolerogenic immune responses canalso include any response that leads to the stimulation, induction,production or recruitment of regulatory cells, such as CD4+ Treg cells,CD8+ Treg cells, Breg cells, etc. In some embodiments, the tolerogenicimmune response, is one that results in the conversion to a regulatoryphenotype characterized by the production, induction, stimulation orrecruitment of regulatory cells.

Tolerogenic immune responses also include any response that leads to thestimulation, production or recruitment of CD4+ Treg cells and/or CD8+Treg cells. CD4+ Treg cells can express the transcription factor FoxP3and inhibit inflammatory responses and auto-immune inflammatory diseases(Human regulatory T cells in autoimmune diseases. Cvetanovich G L,Hafler D A. Curr Opin Immunol. 2010 December; 22(6):753-60. Regulatory Tcells and autoimmunity. Vila J, Isaacs J D, Anderson A E.Curr OpinHematol. 2009 July; 16(4):274-9). Such cells also suppress T-cell helpto B-cells and induce tolerance to both self and foreign antigens(Therapeutic approaches to allergy and autoimmunity based on FoxP3+regulatory T-cell activation and expansion. Miyara M, Wing K, SakaguchiS. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009 April; 123(4):749-55). CD4+ Treg cellsrecognize antigen when presented by Class II proteins on APCs. CD8+ Tregcells, which recognize antigen presented by Class I (and Qa-1), can alsosuppress T-cell help to B-cells and result in activation ofantigen-specific suppression inducing tolerance to both self and foreignantigens. Disruption of the interaction of Qa-1 with CD8+ Treg cells hasbeen shown to dysregulate immune responses and results in thedevelopment of auto-antibody formation and an auto-immune lethalsystemic-lupus-erythematosus (Kim et al., Nature. 2010 September 16, 467(7313): 328-32). CD8+ Treg cells have also been shown to inhibit modelsof autoimmune inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis andcolitis (CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in autoimmune arthritis. Oh S,Rankin A L, Caton A J. Immunol. Rev. 2010 January; 233(1):97-111.Regulatory T cells in inflammatory bowel disease. Boden E K, Snapper SB. Curr Opin Gastroenterol. 2008 November; 24(6):733-41). In someembodiments, the compositions provided can effectively result in bothtypes of responses (CD4+ Treg and CD8+ Treg). In other embodiments,FoxP3 can be induced in other immune cells, such as macrophages, iNKTcells, etc., and the compositions provided herein can result in one ormore of these responses as well.

Tolerogenic immune responses also include, but are not limited to, theinduction of regulatory cytokines, such as Treg cytokines; induction ofinhibitory cytokines; the inhibition of inflammatory cytokines (e.g.,IL-4, IL-1b, IL-5, TNF-α, IL-6, GM-CSF, IFN-7, IL-2, IL-9, IL-12, IL-17,IL-18, IL-21, IL-22, IL-23, M-CSF, C reactive protein, acute phaseprotein, chemokines (e.g., MCP-1, RANTES, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, MIG, ITAC orIP-10), the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-4,IL-13, IL-10, etc.), chemokines (e.g., CCL-2, CXCL8), proteases (e.g.,MMP-3, MMP-9), leukotrienes (e.g., CysLT-1, CysLT-2), prostaglandins(e.g., PGE2) or histamines; the inhibition of polarization to a Th17,Th1 or Th2 immune response; the inhibition of effector cell-specificcytokines: Th17 (e.g., IL-17, IL-25), Th1 (IFN-γ), Th2 (e.g., IL-4,IL-13); the inhibition of Th1-, Th2- or TH17-specific transcriptionfactors; the inhibition of proliferation of effector T cells; theinduction of apoptosis of effector T cells; the induction of tolerogenicdendritic cell-specific genes, the induction of FoxP3 expression, theinhibition of IgE induction or IgE-mediated immune responses; theinhibition of antibody responses (e.g., antigen-specific antibodyproduction); the inhibition of T helper cell response; the production ofTGF-β and/or IL-10; the inhibition of effector function ofautoantibodies (e.g., inhibition in the depletion of cells, cell ortissue damage or complement activation); etc.

Any of the foregoing may be measured in vivo in one or more animalmodels or may be measured in vitro. One of ordinary skill in the art isfamiliar with such in vivo or in vitro measurements. Undesired immuneresponses or tolerogenic immune responses can be monitored using, forexample, methods of assessing immune cell number and/or function,tetramer analysis, ELISPOT, flow cytometry-based analysis of cytokineexpression, cytokine secretion, cytokine expression profiling, geneexpression profiling, protein expression profiling, analysis of cellsurface markers, PCR-based detection of immune cell receptor gene usage(see T. Clay et al., “Assays for Monitoring Cellular Immune Response toActive Immunotherapy of Cancer” Clinical Cancer Research 7:1127-1135(2001)), etc. Undesired immune responses or tolerogenic immune responsesmay also be monitored using, for example, methods of assessing proteinlevels in plasma or serum, immune cell proliferation and/or functionalassays, etc. In some embodiments, tolerogenic immune responses can bemonitored by assessing the induction of FoxP3. In addition, specificmethods are described in more detail in the Examples.

Preferably, tolerogenic immune responses lead to the inhibition of thedevelopment, progression or pathology of the diseases, disorders orconditions described herein. Whether or not the inventive compositionscan lead to the inhibition of the development, progression or pathologyof the diseases, disorders or conditions described herein can bemeasured with animal models of such diseases, disorders or conditions.

In some embodiments, the reduction of an undesired immune response orgeneration of a tolerogenic immune response may be assessed bydetermining clinical endpoints, clinical efficacy, clinical symptoms,disease biomarkers and/or clinical scores. Undesired immune responses ortolerogenic immune responses can also be assessed with diagnostic teststo assess the presence or absence of a disease, disorder or condition asprovided herein. Undesired immune responses can further be assessed bymethods of measuring therapeutic proteins levels and/or function in asubject. In embodiments, methods for monitoring or assessing undesiredallergic responses include assessing an allergic response in a subjectby skin reactivity and/or allergen-specific antibody production.

In some embodiments, monitoring or assessing the generation of anundesired immune response or a tolerogenic immune response in a subjectcan be prior to the administration of a composition of syntheticnanocarriers provided herein and/or prior to administration of atransplantable graft or therapeutic protein or exposure to an allergen.In other embodiments, assessing the generation of an undesired immuneresponse or tolerogenic immune response can be after administration of acomposition of synthetic nanocarriers provided herein and/or afteradministration of a transplantable graft or therapeutic protein orexposure to an allergen. In some embodiments, the assessment is doneafter administration of the composition of synthetic nanocarriers, butprior to administration of a transplantable graft or therapeutic proteinor exposure to an allergen. In other embodiments, the assessment is doneafter administration of a transplantable graft or therapeutic protein orexposure to an allergen, but prior to administration of the composition.In still other embodiments, the assessment is performed prior to boththe administration of the synthetic nanocarriers and administration of atransplantable graft or therapeutic protein or exposure to an allergen,while in yet other embodiments the assessment is performed after boththe administration of synthetic nanocarriers and the administration of atransplantable graft or therapeutic protein or exposure to an allergen.In further embodiments, the assessment is performed both prior to andafter the administration of the synthetic nanocarriers and/oradministration of a transplantable graft or therapeutic protein orexposure to an allergen. In still other embodiments, the assessment isperformed more than once on the subject to determine that a desirableimmune state is maintained in the subject, such as a subject that has oris at risk of having an inflammatory disease, an autoimmune disease, anallergy, organ or tissue rejection or graft versus host disease. Othersubjects include those that have undergone or will undergotransplantation as well as those that have received, are receiving orwill receive a therapeutic protein against which they have experienced,are experiencing or are expected to experience an undesired immuneresponse.

An antibody response can be assessed by determining one or more antibodytiters. “Antibody titer” means a measurable level of antibodyproduction. Methods for measuring antibody titers are known in the artand include Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). In embodiments,the antibody response can be quantitated, for example, as the number ofantibodies, concentration of antibodies or titer. The values can beabsolute or they can be relative. Assays for quantifying an antibodyresponse include antibody capture assays, enzyme-linked immunosorbentassays (ELISAs), inhibition liquid phase absorption assays (ILPAAs),rocket immunoelectrophoresis (RIE) assays and line immunoelectrophoresis(LIE) assays. When an antibody response is compared to another antibodyresponse the same type of quantitative value (e.g., titer) and method ofmeasurement (e.g., ELISA) is preferably used to make the comparison.

An ELISA method for measuring an antibody titer, for example, a typicalsandwich ELISA, may consist of the following steps (i) preparing anELISA-plate coating material such that the antibody target of interestis coupled to a substrate polymer or other suitable material (ii)preparing the coating material in an aqueous solution (such as PBS) anddelivering the coating material solution to the wells of a multiwellplate for overnight deposition of the coating onto the multiwell plate(iii) thoroughly washing the multiwell plate with wash buffer (such as0.05% Tween-20 in PBS) to remove excess coating material (iv) blockingthe plate for nonspecific binding by applying a diluent solution (suchas 10% fetal bovine serum in PBS), (v) washing the blocking/diluentsolution from the plate with wash buffer (vi) diluting the serumsample(s) containing antibodies and appropriate standards (positivecontrols) with diluent as required to obtain a concentration thatsuitably saturates the ELISA response (vii) serially diluting the plasmasamples on the multiwell plate such to cover a range of concentrationssuitable for generating an ELISA response curve (viii) incubating theplate to provide for antibody-target binding (ix) washing the plate withwash buffer to remove antibodies not bound to antigen (x) adding anappropriate concentration of a secondary detection antibody in samediluent such as a biotin-coupled detection antibody capable of bindingthe primary antibody (xi) incubating the plate with the applieddetection antibody, followed by washing with wash buffer (xii) adding anenzyme such as streptavidin-HRP (horse radish peroxidase) that will bindto biotin found on biotinylated antibodies and incubating (xiii) washingthe multiwell plate (xiv) adding substrate(s) (such as TMB solution) tothe plate (xv) applying a stop solution (such as 2N sulfuric acid) whencolor development is complete (xvi) reading optical density of the platewells at a specific wavelength for the substrate (450 nm withsubtraction of readings at 570 nm) (xvi) applying a suitablemultiparameter curve fit to the data and defining half-maximal effectiveconcentration (EC50) as the concentration on the curve at which half themaximum OD value for the plate standards is achieved.

A “transplantable graft” refers to a biological material, such as cells,tissues and organs (in whole or in part) that can be administered to asubject. Transplantable grafts may be autografts, allografts, orxenografts of, for example, a biological material such as an organ,tissue, skin, bone, nerves, tendon, neurons, blood vessels, fat, cornea,pluripotent cells, differentiated cells (obtained or derived in vivo orin vitro), etc. In some embodiments, a transplantable graft is formed,for example, from cartilage, bone, extracellular matrix, or collagenmatrices. Transplantable grafts may also be single cells, suspensions ofcells and cells in tissues and organs that can be transplanted.Transplantable cells typically have a therapeutic function, for example,a function that is lacking or diminished in a recipient subject. Somenon-limiting examples of transplantable cells are β-cells, hepatocytes,hematopoietic stem cells, neuronal stem cells, neurons, glial cells, ormyelinating cells. Transplantable cells can be cells that areunmodified, for example, cells obtained from a donor subject and usablein transplantation without any genetic or epigenetic modifications. Inother embodiments, transplantable cells can be modified cells, forexample, cells obtained from a subject having a genetic defect, in whichthe genetic defect has been corrected, or cells that are derived fromreprogrammed cells, for example, differentiated cells derived from cellsobtained from a subject.

“Transplantation” refers to the process of transferring (moving) atransplantable graft into a recipient subject (e.g., from a donorsubject, from an in vitro source (e.g., differentiated autologous orheterologous native or induced pluripotent cells)) and/or from onebodily location to another bodily location in the same subject.

“Undesired immune response” refers to any undesired immune response thatresults from exposure to an antigen, promotes or exacerbates a disease,disorder or condition provided herein (or a symptom thereof), or issymptomatic of a disease, disorder or condition provided herein. Suchimmune responses generally have a negative impact on a subject's healthor is symptomatic of a negative impact on a subject's health.

C. INVENTIVE COMPOSITIONS

Provided herein are compositions of synthetic nanocarriers andimmunosuppressants that when administered to a subject can result inimmunosuppressive effects. Preferably, the compositions also compriseantigen, and the immunosuppressive effect is specific to the antigenand, thus, a tolerogenic effect. Such compositions can result in any ofthe tolerogenic responses provided herein, such as the stimulation,induction, production or recruitment of regulatory cells (e.g., CD4⁺Treg cells and/or CD8⁺ Treg cells). In some embodiments, the tolerogenicimmune response, is one that results in the conversion to a regulatoryphenotype characterized by the production, induction, stimulation orrecruitment of regulatory cells (e.g., Treg cells).

As mentioned above, the synthetic nanocarriers are designed to compriseimmunosuppressants and, in some embodiments, antigen against which atolerogenic effect is desired. A wide variety of synthetic nanocarrierscan be used according to the invention. In some embodiments, syntheticnanocarriers are spheres or spheroids. In some embodiments, syntheticnanocarriers are flat or plate-shaped. In some embodiments, syntheticnanocarriers are cubes or cubic. In some embodiments, syntheticnanocarriers are ovals or ellipses. In some embodiments, syntheticnanocarriers are cylinders, cones, or pyramids.

In some embodiments, it is desirable to use a population of syntheticnanocarriers that is relatively uniform in terms of size, shape, and/orcomposition so that each synthetic nanocarrier has similar properties.For example, at least 80%, at least 90%, or at least 95% of thesynthetic nanocarriers, based on the total number of syntheticnanocarriers, may have a minimum dimension or maximum dimension thatfalls within 5%, 10%, or 20% of the average diameter or averagedimension of the synthetic nanocarriers. In some embodiments, apopulation of synthetic nanocarriers may be heterogeneous with respectto size, shape, and/or composition.

Synthetic nanocarriers can be solid or hollow and can comprise one ormore layers. In some embodiments, each layer has a unique compositionand unique properties relative to the other layer(s). To give but oneexample, synthetic nanocarriers may have a core/shell structure, whereinthe core is one layer (e.g. a polymeric core) and the shell is a secondlayer (e.g. a lipid bilayer or monolayer). Synthetic nanocarriers maycomprise a plurality of different layers.

In some embodiments, synthetic nanocarriers may optionally comprise oneor more lipids. In some embodiments, a synthetic nanocarrier maycomprise a liposome. In some embodiments, a synthetic nanocarrier maycomprise a lipid bilayer. In some embodiments, a synthetic nanocarriermay comprise a lipid monolayer. In some embodiments, a syntheticnanocarrier may comprise a micelle. In some embodiments, a syntheticnanocarrier may comprise a core comprising a polymeric matrix surroundedby a lipid layer (e.g., lipid bilayer, lipid monolayer, etc.). In someembodiments, a synthetic nanocarrier may comprise a non-polymeric core(e.g., metal particle, quantum dot, ceramic particle, bone particle,viral particle, proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, etc.) surroundedby a lipid layer (e.g., lipid bilayer, lipid monolayer, etc.).

In some embodiments, synthetic nanocarriers do not comprise a polymericcomponent. In some embodiments, synthetic nanocarriers may comprisemetal particles, quantum dots, ceramic particles, etc. In someembodiments, a non-polymeric synthetic nanocarrier is an aggregate ofnon-polymeric components, such as an aggregate of metal atoms (e.g.,gold atoms).

In some embodiments, synthetic nanocarriers may optionally comprise oneor more amphiphilic entities. In some embodiments, an amphiphilic entitycan promote the production of synthetic nanocarriers with increasedstability, improved uniformity, or increased viscosity. In someembodiments, amphiphilic entities can be associated with the interiorsurface of a lipid membrane (e.g., lipid bilayer, lipid monolayer,etc.). Many amphiphilic entities known in the art are suitable for usein making synthetic nanocarriers in accordance with the presentinvention. Such amphiphilic entities include, but are not limited to,phosphoglycerides; phosphatidylcholines; dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine(DPPC); dioleylphosphatidyl ethanolamine (DOPE);dioleyloxypropyltriethylammonium (DOTMA); dioleoylphosphatidylcholine;cholesterol; cholesterol ester; diacylglycerol; diacylglycerolsuccinate;diphosphatidyl glycerol (DPPG); hexanedecanol; fatty alcohols such aspolyethylene glycol (PEG); polyoxyethylene-9-lauryl ether; a surfaceactive fatty acid, such as palmitic acid or oleic acid; fatty acids;fatty acid monoglycerides; fatty acid diglycerides; fatty acid amides;sorbitan trioleate (Span® 85) glycocholate; sorbitan monolaurate (Span®20); polysorbate 20 (Tween® 20); polysorbate 60 (Tween® 60); polysorbate65 (Tween® 65); polysorbate 80 (Tween® 80); polysorbate 85 (Tween® 85);polyoxyethylene monostearate; surfactin; a poloxomer; a sorbitan fattyacid ester such as sorbitan trioleate; lecithin; lysolecithin;phosphatidylserine; phosphatidylinositol; sphingomyelin;phosphatidylethanolamine (cephalin); cardiolipin; phosphatidic acid;cerebrosides; dicetylphosphate; dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol;stearylamine; dodecylamine; hexadecyl-amine; acetyl palmitate; glycerolricinoleate; hexadecyl sterate; isopropyl myristate; tyloxapol;poly(ethylene glycol)5000-phosphatidylethanolamine; poly(ethyleneglycol)400-monostearate; phospholipids; synthetic and/or naturaldetergents having high surfactant properties; deoxycholates;cyclodextrins; chaotropic salts; ion pairing agents; and combinationsthereof. An amphiphilic entity component may be a mixture of differentamphiphilic entities. Those skilled in the art will recognize that thisis an exemplary, not comprehensive, list of substances with surfactantactivity. Any amphiphilic entity may be used in the production ofsynthetic nanocarriers to be used in accordance with the presentinvention.

In some embodiments, synthetic nanocarriers may optionally comprise oneor more carbohydrates. Carbohydrates may be natural or synthetic. Acarbohydrate may be a derivatized natural carbohydrate. In certainembodiments, a carbohydrate comprises monosaccharide or disaccharide,including but not limited to glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose,lactose, sucrose, maltose, trehalose, cellbiose, mannose, xylose,arabinose, glucoronic acid, galactoronic acid, mannuronic acid,glucosamine, galatosamine, and neuramic acid. In certain embodiments, acarbohydrate is a polysaccharide, including but not limited to pullulan,cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose(HPMC), hydroxycellulose (HC), methylcellulose (MC), dextran,cyclodextran, glycogen, hydroxyethylstarch, carageenan, glycon, amylose,chitosan, N,O-carboxylmethylchitosan, algin and alginic acid, starch,chitin, inulin, konjac, glucommannan, pustulan, heparin, hyaluronicacid, curdlan, and xanthan. In embodiments, the inventive syntheticnanocarriers do not comprise (or specifically exclude) carbohydrates,such as a polysaccharide. In certain embodiments, the carbohydrate maycomprise a carbohydrate derivative such as a sugar alcohol, includingbut not limited to mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, erythritol, maltitol,and lactitol.

In some embodiments, synthetic nanocarriers can comprise one or morepolymers. In some embodiments, the synthetic nanocarriers comprise oneor more polymers that is a non-methoxy-terminated, pluronic polymer. Insome embodiments, at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%,35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, or99% (weight/weight) of the polymers that make up the syntheticnanocarriers are non-methoxy-terminated, pluronic polymers. In someembodiments, all of the polymers that make up the synthetic nanocarriersare non-methoxy-terminated, pluronic polymers. In some embodiments, thesynthetic nanocarriers comprise one or more polymers that is anon-methoxy-terminated polymer. In some embodiments, at least 1%, 2%,3%, 4%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%,70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, or 99% (weight/weight) of thepolymers that make up the synthetic nanocarriers arenon-methoxy-terminated polymers. In some embodiments, all of thepolymers that make up the synthetic nanocarriers arenon-methoxy-terminated polymers. In some embodiments, the syntheticnanocarriers comprise one or more polymers that does not comprisepluronic polymer. In some embodiments, at least 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 10%,15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%,85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, or 99% (weight/weight) of the polymers that make upthe synthetic nanocarriers do not comprise pluronic polymer. In someembodiments, all of the polymers that make up the synthetic nanocarriersdo not comprise pluronic polymer. In some embodiments, such a polymercan be surrounded by a coating layer (e.g., liposome, lipid monolayer,micelle, etc.). In some embodiments, various elements of the syntheticnanocarriers can be coupled with the polymer.

The immunosuppressants and/or antigens can be coupled to the syntheticnanocarriers by any of a number of methods. Generally, the coupling canbe a result of bonding between the immunosuppressants and/or antigensand the synthetic nanocarriers. This bonding can result in theimmunosuppressants and/or antigens being attached to the surface of thesynthetic nanocarrierss and/or contained within (encapsulated) thesynthetic nanocarriers. In some embodiments, however, theimmunosuppressants and/or antigens are encapsulated by the syntheticnanocarriers as a result of the structure of the synthetic nanocarriersrather than bonding to the synthetic nanocarriers. In preferableembodiments, the synthetic nanocarriers comprise a polymer as providedherein, and the immunosuppressants and/or antigens are coupled to thepolymer.

When coupling occurs as a result of bonding between theimmunosuppressants and/or antigens and synthetic nanocarriers, thecoupling may occur via a coupling moiety. A coupling moiety can be anymoiety through which an immunosuppressant and/or antigen is bonded to asynthetic nanocarrier. Such moieties include covalent bonds, such as anamide bond or ester bond, as well as separate molecules that bond(covalently or non-covalently) the immunosuppressant and/or antigen tothe synthetic nanocarrier. Such molecules include linkers or polymers ora unit thereof. For example, the coupling moiety can comprise a chargedpolymer to which an immunosuppressant and/or antigen electrostaticallybinds. As another example, the coupling moiety can comprise a polymer orunit thereof to which it is covalently bonded.

In preferred embodiments, the synthetic nanocarriers comprise a polymeras provided herein. These synthetic nanocarriers can be completelypolymeric or they can be a mix of polymers and other materials.

In some embodiments, the polymers of a synthetic nanocarrier associateto form a polymeric matrix. In some of these embodiments, a component,such as an immunosuppressant or antigen, can be covalently associatedwith one or more polymers of the polymeric matrix. In some embodiments,covalent association is mediated by a linker. In some embodiments, acomponent can be noncovalently associated with one or more polymers ofthe polymeric matrix. For example, in some embodiments, a component canbe encapsulated within, surrounded by, and/or dispersed throughout apolymeric matrix. Alternatively or additionally, a component can beassociated with one or more polymers of a polymeric matrix byhydrophobic interactions, charge interactions, van der Waals forces,etc. A wide variety of polymers and methods for forming polymericmatrices therefrom are known conventionally.

Polymers may be natural or unnatural (synthetic) polymers. Polymers maybe homopolymers or copolymers comprising two or more monomers. In termsof sequence, copolymers may be random, block, or comprise a combinationof random and block sequences. Typically, polymers in accordance withthe present invention are organic polymers.

In some embodiments, the polymer comprises a polyester, polycarbonate,polyamide, or polyether, or unit thereof. In other embodiments, thepolymer comprises poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), polypropylene glycol,poly(lactic acid), poly(glycolic acid), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid),or a polycaprolactone, or unit thereof. In some embodiments, it ispreferred that the polymer is biodegradable. Therefore, in theseembodiments, it is preferred that if the polymer comprises a polyether,such as poly(ethylene glycol) or polypropylene glycol or unit thereof,the polymer comprises a block-co-polymer of a polyether and abiodegradable polymer such that the polymer is biodegradable. In otherembodiments, the polymer does not solely comprise a polyether or unitthereof, such as poly(ethylene glycol) or polypropylene glycol or unitthereof.

Other examples of polymers suitable for use in the present inventioninclude, but are not limited to polyethylenes, polycarbonates (e.g.poly(1,3-dioxan-2one)), polyanhydrides (e.g. poly(sebacic anhydride)),polypropylfumerates, polyamides (e.g. polycaprolactam), polyacetals,polyethers, polyesters (e.g., polylactide, polyglycolide,polylactide-co-glycolide, polycaprolactone, polyhydroxyacid (e.g.poly(β-hydroxyalkanoate))), poly(orthoesters), polycyanoacrylates,polyvinyl alcohols, polyurethanes, polyphosphazenes, polyacrylates,polymethacrylates, polyureas, polystyrenes, and polyamines, polylysine,polylysine-PEG copolymers, and poly(ethyleneimine), poly(ethyleneimine)-PEG copolymers.

In some embodiments, polymers in accordance with the present inventioninclude polymers which have been approved for use in humans by the U.S.Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under 21 C.F.R. §177.2600, includingbut not limited to polyesters (e.g., polylactic acid,poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), polycaprolactone, polyvalerolactone,poly(1,3-dioxan-2one)); polyanhydrides (e.g., poly(sebacic anhydride));polyethers (e.g., polyethylene glycol); polyurethanes;polymethacrylates; polyacrylates; and polycyanoacrylates.

In some embodiments, polymers can be hydrophilic. For example, polymersmay comprise anionic groups (e.g., phosphate group, sulphate group,carboxylate group); cationic groups (e.g., quaternary amine group); orpolar groups (e.g., hydroxyl group, thiol group, amine group). In someembodiments, a synthetic nanocarrier comprising a hydrophilic polymericmatrix generates a hydrophilic environment within the syntheticnanocarrier. In some embodiments, polymers can be hydrophobic. In someembodiments, a synthetic nanocarrier comprising a hydrophobic polymericmatrix generates a hydrophobic environment within the syntheticnanocarrier. Selection of the hydrophilicity or hydrophobicity of thepolymer may have an impact on the nature of materials that areincorporated (e.g., coupled) within the synthetic nanocarrier.

In some embodiments, polymers may be modified with one or more moietiesand/or functional groups. A variety of moieties or functional groups canbe used in accordance with the present invention. In some embodiments,polymers may be modified with polyethylene glycol (PEG), with acarbohydrate, and/or with acyclic polyacetals derived frompolysaccharides (Papisov, 2001, ACS Symposium Series, 786:301). Certainembodiments may be made using the general teachings of U.S. Pat. No.5,543,158 to Gref et al., or WO publication WO2009/051837 by Von Andrianet al.

In some embodiments, polymers may be modified with a lipid or fatty acidgroup. In some embodiments, a fatty acid group may be one or more ofbutyric, caproic, caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic,arachidic, behenic, or lignoceric acid. In some embodiments, a fattyacid group may be one or more of palmitoleic, oleic, vaccenic, linoleic,alpha-linoleic, gamma-linoleic, arachidonic, gadoleic, arachidonic,eicosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic, or erucic acid.

In some embodiments, polymers may be polyesters, including copolymerscomprising lactic acid and glycolic acid units, such as poly(lacticacid-co-glycolic acid) and poly(lactide-co-glycolide), collectivelyreferred to herein as “PLGA”; and homopolymers comprising glycolic acidunits, referred to herein as “PGA,” and lactic acid units, such aspoly-L-lactic acid, poly-D-lactic acid, poly-D,L-lactic acid,poly-L-lactide, poly-D-lactide, and poly-D,L-lactide, collectivelyreferred to herein as “PLA.” In some embodiments, exemplary polyestersinclude, for example, polyhydroxyacids; PEG copolymers and copolymers oflactide and glycolide (e.g., PLA-PEG copolymers, PGA-PEG copolymers,PLGA-PEG copolymers, and derivatives thereof. In some embodiments,polyesters include, for example, poly(caprolactone),poly(caprolactone)-PEG copolymers, poly(L-lactide-co-L-lysine),poly(serine ester), poly(4-hydroxy-L-proline ester),poly[α-(4-aminobutyl)-L-glycolic acid], and derivatives thereof.

In some embodiments, a polymer may be PLGA. PLGA is a biocompatible andbiodegradable co-polymer of lactic acid and glycolic acid, and variousforms of PLGA are characterized by the ratio of lactic acid:glycolicacid. Lactic acid can be L-lactic acid, D-lactic acid, or D,L-lacticacid. The degradation rate of PLGA can be adjusted by altering thelactic acid:glycolic acid ratio. In some embodiments, PLGA to be used inaccordance with the present invention is characterized by a lacticacid:glycolic acid ratio of approximately 85:15, approximately 75:25,approximately 60:40, approximately 50:50, approximately 40:60,approximately 25:75, or approximately 15:85.

In some embodiments, polymers may be one or more acrylic polymers. Incertain embodiments, acrylic polymers include, for example, acrylic acidand methacrylic acid copolymers, methyl methacrylate copolymers,ethoxyethyl methacrylates, cyanoethyl methacrylate, aminoalkylmethacrylate copolymer, poly(acrylic acid), poly(methacrylic acid),methacrylic acid alkylamide copolymer, poly(methyl methacrylate),poly(methacrylic acid anhydride), methyl methacrylate, polymethacrylate,poly(methyl methacrylate) copolymer, polyacrylamide, aminoalkylmethacrylate copolymer, glycidyl methacrylate copolymers,polycyanoacrylates, and combinations comprising one or more of theforegoing polymers. The acrylic polymer may comprise fully-polymerizedcopolymers of acrylic and methacrylic acid esters with a low content ofquaternary ammonium groups.

In some embodiments, polymers can be cationic polymers. In general,cationic polymers are able to condense and/or protect negatively chargedstrands of nucleic acids (e.g. DNA, or derivatives thereof).Amine-containing polymers such as poly(lysine) (Zauner et al., 1998,Adv. Drug Del. Rev., 30:97; and Kabanov et al., 1995, BioconjugateChem., 6:7), poly(ethylene imine) (PEI; Boussif et al., 1995, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 1995, 92:7297), and poly(amidoamine) dendrimers(Kukowska-Latallo et al., 1996, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 93:4897;Tang et al., 1996, Bioconjugate Chem., 7:703; and Haensler et al., 1993,Bioconjugate Chem., 4:372) are positively-charged at physiological pH,form ion pairs with nucleic acids, and mediate transfection in a varietyof cell lines. In embodiments, the inventive synthetic nanocarriers maynot comprise (or may exclude) cationic polymers.

In some embodiments, polymers can be degradable polyesters bearingcationic side chains (Putnam et al., 1999, Macromolecules, 32:3658;Barrera et al., 1993, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 115:11010; Kwon et al., 1989,Macromolecules, 22:3250; Lim et al., 1999, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 121:5633;and Zhou et al., 1990, Macromolecules, 23:3399). Examples of thesepolyesters include poly(L-lactide-co-L-lysine) (Barrera et al., 1993, J.Am. Chem. Soc., 115:11010), poly(serine ester) (Zhou et al., 1990,Macromolecules, 23:3399), poly(4-hydroxy-L-proline ester) (Putnam etal., 1999, Macromolecules, 32:3658; and Lim et al., 1999, J. Am. Chem.Soc., 121:5633), and poly(4-hydroxy-L-proline ester) (Putnam et al.,1999, Macromolecules, 32:3658; and Lim et al., 1999, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,121:5633).

The properties of these and other polymers and methods for preparingthem are well known in the art (see, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos.6,123,727; 5,804,178; 5,770,417; 5,736,372; 5,716,404; 6,095,148;5,837,752; 5,902,599; 5,696,175; 5,514,378; 5,512,600; 5,399,665;5,019,379; 5,010,167; 4,806,621; 4,638,045; and 4,946,929; Wang et al.,2001, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 123:9480; Lim et al., 2001, J. Am. Chem. Soc.,123:2460; Langer, 2000, Acc. Chem. Res., 33:94; Langer, 1999, J.Control. Release, 62:7; and Uhrich et al., 1999, Chem. Rev., 99:3181).More generally, a variety of methods for synthesizing certain suitablepolymers are described in Concise Encyclopedia of Polymer Science andPolymeric Amines and Ammonium Salts, Ed. by Goethals, Pergamon Press,1980; Principles of Polymerization by Odian, John Wiley & Sons, FourthEdition, 2004; Contemporary Polymer Chemistry by Allcock et al.,Prentice-Hall, 1981; Deming et al., 1997, Nature, 390:386; and in U.S.Pat. Nos. 6,506,577, 6,632,922, 6,686,446, and 6,818,732.

In some embodiments, polymers can be linear or branched polymers. Insome embodiments, polymers can be dendrimers. In some embodiments,polymers can be substantially cross-linked to one another. In someembodiments, polymers can be substantially free of cross-links. In someembodiments, polymers can be used in accordance with the presentinvention without undergoing a cross-linking step. It is further to beunderstood that inventive synthetic nanocarriers may comprise blockcopolymers, graft copolymers, blends, mixtures, and/or adducts of any ofthe foregoing and other polymers. Those skilled in the art willrecognize that the polymers listed herein represent an exemplary, notcomprehensive, list of polymers that can be of use in accordance withthe present invention.

Compositions according to the invention comprise synthetic nanocarriersin combination with pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, such aspreservatives, buffers, saline, or phosphate buffered saline. Thecompositions may be made using conventional pharmaceutical manufacturingand compounding techniques to arrive at useful dosage forms. In anembodiment, inventive synthetic nanocarriers are suspended in sterilesaline solution for injection together with a preservative.

In embodiments, when preparing synthetic nanocarriers as carriers,methods for coupling components to the synthetic nanocarriers may beuseful. If the component is a small molecule it may be of advantage toattach the component to a polymer prior to the assembly of the syntheticnanocarriers. In embodiments, it may also be an advantage to prepare thesynthetic nanocarriers with surface groups that are used to couple thecomponents to the synthetic nanocarrier through the use of these surfacegroups rather than attaching the components to a polymer and then usingthis polymer conjugate in the construction of synthetic nanocarriers.

In certain embodiments, the coupling can be a covalent linker. Inembodiments, peptides according to the invention can be covalentlycoupled to the external surface via a 1,2,3-triazole linker formed bythe 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of azido groups on the surface ofthe nanocarrier with antigen or immunosuppressant containing an alkynegroup or by the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of alkynes on thesurface of the nanocarrier with antigens or immunosuppressantscontaining an azido group. Such cycloaddition reactions are preferablyperformed in the presence of a Cu(I) catalyst along with a suitableCu(I)-ligand and a reducing agent to reduce Cu(II) compound to catalyticactive Cu(I) compound. This Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition(CuAAC) can also be referred as the click reaction.

Additionally, the covalent coupling may comprise a covalent linker thatcomprises an amide linker, a disulfide linker, a thioether linker, ahydrazone linker, a hydrazide linker, an imine or oxime linker, an ureaor thiourea linker, an amidine linker, an amine linker, and asulfonamide linker.

An amide linker is formed via an amide bond between an amine on onecomponent such as the antigen or immunosuppressant with the carboxylicacid group of a second component such as the nanocarrier. The amide bondin the linker can be made using any of the conventional amide bondforming reactions with suitably protected amino acids and activatedcarboxylic acid such N-hydroxysuccinimide-activated ester.

A disulfide linker is made via the formation of a disulfide (S—S) bondbetween two sulfur atoms of the form, for instance, of R₁—S—S—R₂. Adisulfide bond can be formed by thiol exchange of an antigen orimmunosuppressant containing thiol/mercaptan group (—SH) with anotheractivated thiol group on a polymer or nanocarrier or a nanocarriercontaining thiol/mercaptan groups with an antigen or immunosuppressantcontaining activated thiol group.

A triazole linker, specifically a 1,2,3-triazole of the form

wherein R₁ and R₂ may be any chemical entities, is made by the1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction of an azide attached to a firstcomponent such as the nanocarrier with a terminal alkyne attached to asecond component such as the immunosuppressant or antigen. The1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction is performed with or without acatalyst, preferably with Cu(I)-catalyst, which links the two componentsthrough a 1,2,3-triazole function. This chemistry is described in detailby Sharpless et al., Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 41(14), 2596, (2002) andMeldal, et al, Chem. Rev., 2008, 108(8), 2952-3015 and is often referredto as a “click” reaction or CuAAC.

In embodiments, a polymer containing an azide or alkyne group, terminalto the polymer chain is prepared. This polymer is then used to prepare asynthetic nanocarrier in such a manner that a plurality of the alkyne orazide groups are positioned on the surface of that nanocarrier.Alternatively, the synthetic nanocarrier can be prepared by anotherroute, and subsequently functionalized with alkyne or azide groups. Thecomponent is prepared with the presence of either an alkyne (if thepolymer contains an azide) or an azide (if the polymer contains analkyne) group. The component is then allowed to react with thenanocarrier via the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction with or without acatalyst which covalently couples the component to the particle throughthe 1,4-disubstituted 1,2,3-triazole linker.

A thioether linker is made by the formation of a sulfur-carbon(thioether) bond in the form, for instance, of R₁—S—R₂. Thioether can bemade by either alkylation of a thiol/mercaptan (—SH) group on onecomponent with an alkylating group such as halide or epoxide on a secondcomponent. Thioether linkers can also be formed by Michael addition of athiol/mercaptan group on one component to an electron-deficient alkenegroup on a second component containing a maleimide group or vinylsulfone group as the Michael acceptor. In another way, thioether linkerscan be prepared by the radical thiol-ene reaction of a thiol/mercaptangroup on one component with an alkene group on a second component.

A hydrazone linker is made by the reaction of a hydrazide group on onecomponent with an aldehyde/ketone group on the second component.

A hydrazide linker is formed by the reaction of a hydrazine group on onecomponent with a carboxylic acid group on the second component. Suchreaction is generally performed using chemistry similar to the formationof amide bond where the carboxylic acid is activated with an activatingreagent.

An imine or oxime linker is formed by the reaction of an amine orN-alkoxyamine (or aminooxy) group on one component with an aldehyde orketone group on the second component.

An urea or thiourea linker is prepared by the reaction of an amine groupon one component with an isocyanate or thioisocyanate group on thesecond component. An amidine linker is prepared by the reaction of anamine group on one component with an imidoester group on the secondcomponent.

An amine linker is made by the alkylation reaction of an amine group onone component with an alkylating group such as halide, epoxide, orsulfonate ester group on the second component. Alternatively, an aminelinker can also be made by reductive amination of an amine group on onecomponent with an aldehyde or ketone group on the second component witha suitable reducing reagent such as sodium cyanoborohydride or sodiumtriacetoxyborohydride.

A sulfonamide linker is made by the reaction of an amine group on onecomponent with a sulfonyl halide (such as sulfonyl chloride) group onthe second component.

A sulfone linker is made by Michael addition of a nucleophile to a vinylsulfone. Either the vinyl sulfone or the nucleophile may be on thesurface of the nanocarrier or attached to a component.

The component can also be conjugated to the nanocarrier via non-covalentconjugation methods. For example, a negative charged antigen orimmunosuppressant can be conjugated to a positive charged nanocarrierthrough electrostatic adsorption. A component containing a metal ligandcan also be conjugated to a nanocarrier containing a metal complex via ametal-ligand complex.

In embodiments, the component can be attached to a polymer, for examplepolylactic acid-block-polyethylene glycol, prior to the assembly of thesynthetic nanocarrier or the synthetic nanocarrier can be formed withreactive or activatible groups on its surface.

In the latter case, the component may be prepared with a group which iscompatible with the attachment chemistry that is presented by thesynthetic nanocarriers' surface. In other embodiments, a peptidecomponent can be attached to VLPs or liposomes using a suitable linker.A linker is a compound or reagent that capable of coupling two moleculestogether. In an embodiment, the linker can be a homobifuntional orheterobifunctional reagent as described in Hermanson 2008. For example,an VLP or liposome synthetic nanocarrier containing a carboxylic groupon the surface can be treated with a homobifunctional linker, adipicdihydrazide (ADH), in the presence of EDC to form the correspondingsynthetic nanocarrier with the ADH linker. The resulting ADH linkedsynthetic nanocarrier is then conjugated with a peptide componentcontaining an acid group via the other end of the ADH linker on NC toproduce the corresponding VLP or liposome peptide conjugate.

For detailed descriptions of available conjugation methods, seeHermanson G T “Bioconjugate Techniques”, 2nd Edition Published byAcademic Press, Inc., 2008. In addition to covalent attachment thecomponent can be coupled by adsorption to a pre-formed syntheticnanocarrier or it can be coupled by encapsulation during the formationof the synthetic nanocarrier.

Any immunosuppressant as provided herein can be coupled to the syntheticnanocarrier. Immunosuppressants include, but are not limited to,statins; mTOR inhibitors, such as rapamycin or a rapamycin analog; TGF-βsignaling agents; TGF-β receptor agonists; histone deacetylase (HDAC)inhibitors; corticosteroids; inhibitors of mitochondrial function, suchas rotenone; P38 inhibitors; NF-κβ inhibitors; adenosine receptoragonists; prostaglandin E2 agonists; phosphodiesterase inhibitors, suchas phosphodiesterase 4 inhibitor; proteasome inhibitors; kinaseinhibitors; G-protein coupled receptor agonists; G-protein coupledreceptor antagonists; glucocorticoids; retinoids; cytokine inhibitors;cytokine receptor inhibitors; cytokine receptor activators; peroxisomeproliferator-activated receptor antagonists; peroxisomeproliferator-activated receptor agonists; histone deacetylaseinhibitors; calcineurin inhibitors; phosphatase inhibitors and oxidizedATPs. Immunosuppressants also include IDO, vitamin D3, cyclosporine A,aryl hydrocarbon receptor inhibitors, resveratrol, azathiopurine,6-mercaptopurine, aspirin, niflumic acid, estriol, tripolide,interleukins (e.g., IL-1, IL-10), cyclosporine A, siRNAs targetingcytokines or cytokine receptors and the like. Examples of statinsinclude atorvastatin (LIPITOR®, TORVAST®), cerivastatin, fluvastatin(LESCOL®, LESCOL® XL), lovastatin (MEVACOR®, ALTOCOR®, ALTOPREV®),mevastatin (COMPACTIN®), pitavastatin (LIVALO®, PIAVA®), rosuvastatin(PRAVACHOL®, SELEKTINE®, LIPOSTAT®), rosuvastatin (CRESTOR®), andsimvastatin (ZOCOR®, LIPEX®).

Examples of mTOR inhibitors include rapamycin and analogs thereof (e.g.,CCL-779, RAD001, AP23573, C20-methallylrapamycin (C20-Marap),C16-(S)-butylsulfonamidorapamycin (C16-BSrap),C16-(S)-3-methylindolerapamycin (C16-iRap) (Bayle et al. Chemistry &Biology 2006, 13:99-107)), AZD8055, BEZ235 (NVP-BEZ235), chrysophanicacid (chrysophanol), deforolimus (MK-8669), everolimus (RAD0001),KU-0063794, PI-103, PP242, temsirolimus, and WYE-354 (available fromSelleck, Houston, Tex., USA).

Examples of TGF-β signaling agents include TGF-β ligands (e.g., activinA, GDF1, GDF11, bone morphogenic proteins, nodal, TGF-βs) and theirreceptors (e.g., ACVR1B, ACVR1c, ACVR2A, ACVR2B, BMPR2, BMPR1A, BMPR1B,TGFβR1, TGFβR11), R-SMADS/co-SMADS (e.g., SMAD1, SMAD2, SMAD3, SMAD4,SMAD5, SMAD8), and ligand inhibitors (e.g, follistatin, noggin, chordin,DAN, lefty, LTBP1, THBS1, Decorin). Examples of inhibitors ofmitochondrial function include atractyloside (dipotassium salt),bongkrekic acid (triammonium salt), carbonyl cyanidem-chlorophenylhydrazone, carboxyatractyloside (e.g., from Atractylisgummifera), CGP-37157, (−)-Deguelin (e.g., from Mundulea sericea), F16,hexokinase II VDAC binding domain peptide, oligomycin, rotenone, Ru360,SFK1, and valinomycin (e.g., from Streptomyces fulvissimus)(EMD4Biosciences, USA).

Examples of P38 inhibitors include SB-203580(4-(4-Fluorophenyl)-2-(4-methylsulfinylphenyl)-5-(4-pyridyl)1H-imidazole),SB-239063(trans-1-(4hydroxycyclohexyl)-4-(fluorophenyl)-5-(2-methoxy-pyrimidin-4-yl)imidazole),SB-220025(5-(2-amino-4-pyrimidinyl)-4-(4-fluorophenyl)-1-(4-piperidinyl)imidazole)),and ARRY-797.

Examples of NF (e.g., NK-κβ) inhibitors includeIFRD1,2-(1,8-naphthyridin-2-yl)-Phenol, 5-aminosalicylic acid, BAY11-7082, BAY 11-7085, CAPE (Caffeic Acid Phenethylester),diethylmaleate, IKK-2 Inhibitor IV, IMD 0354, lactacystin, MG-132[Z-Leu-Leu-Leu-CHO], NFκB Activation Inhibitor III, NF-κB ActivationInhibitor II, JSH-23, parthenolide, Phenylarsine Oxide (PAO), PPM-18,pyrrolidinedithiocarbamic acid ammonium salt, QNZ, RO 106-9920,rocaglamide, rocaglamide AL, rocaglamide C, rocaglamide I, rocaglamideJ, rocaglaol, (R)-MG-132, sodium salicylate, triptolide (PG490),wedelolactone.

Examples of adenosine receptor agonists include CGS-21680 and ATL-146e.

Examples of prostaglandin E2 agonists include E-Prostanoid 2 andE-Prostanoid 4.

Examples of phosphodiesterase inhibitors (non-selective and selectiveinhibitors) include caffeine, aminophylline, IBMX(3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine), paraxanthine, pentoxifylline,theobromine, theophylline, methylated xanthines, vinpocetine, EHNA(erythro-9-(2-hydroxy-3-nonyl)adenine), anagrelide, enoximone (PERFAN),milrinone, levosimendon, mesembrine, ibudilast, piclamilast, luteolin,drotaverine, roflumilast (DAXAS™, DALIRESP™), sildenafil (REVATION®,VIAGRA®), tadalafil (ADCIRCA®, CIALIS®), vardenafil (LEVITRA®, STAXYN®),udenafil, avanafil, icariin, 4-methylpiperazine, and pyrazolopyrimidin-7-1.

Examples of proteasome inhibitors include bortezomib, disulfuram,epigallocatechin-3-gallate, and salinosporamide A.

Examples of kinase inhibitors include bevacizumab, BIBW 2992, cetuximab(ERBITUX®), imatinib (GLEEVEC®), trastuzumab (HERCEPTIN®), gefitinib(IRESSA®), ranibizumab (LUCENTIS®), pegaptanib, sorafenib, dasatinib,sunitinib, erlotinib, nilotinib, lapatinib, panitumumab, vandetanib,E7080, pazopanib, mubritinib.

Examples of glucocorticoids include hydrocortisone (cortisol), cortisoneacetate, prednisone, prednisolone, methylprednisolone, dexamethasone,betamethasone, triamcinolone, beclometasone, fludrocortisone acetate,deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA), and aldosterone.

Examples of retinoids include retinol, retinal, tretinoin (retinoicacid, RETIN-A®), isotretinoin (ACCUTANE®, AMNESTEEM®, CLARAVIS®,SOTRET®), alitretinoin (PANRETIN®), etretinate (TEGISON) and itsmetabolite acitretin (SORIATANE®), tazarotene (TAZORAC®, AVAGE®,ZORAC®), bexarotene (TARGRETIN®), and adapalene (DIFFERIN®).

Examples of cytokine inhibitors include IL1ra, IL1 receptor antagonist,IGFBP, TNF-BF, uromodulin, Alpha-2-Macroglobulin, Cyclosporin A,Pentamidine, and Pentoxifylline (PENTOPAK®, PENTOXIL®, TRENTAL®).

Examples of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor antagonistsinclude GW9662, PPARy antagonist III, G335, T0070907 (EMD4Biosciences,USA).

Examples of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists includepioglitazone, ciglitazone, clofibrate, GW1929, GW7647, L-165,041, LY171883, PPARγ activator, Fmoc-Leu, troglitazone, and WY-14643(EMD4Biosciences, USA).

Examples of histone deacetylase inhibitors include hydroxamic acids (orhydroxamates) such as trichostatin A, cyclic tetrapeptides (such astrapoxin B) and depsipeptides, benzamides, electrophilic ketones,aliphatic acid compounds such as phenylbutyrate and valproic acid,hydroxamic acids such as vorinostat (SAHA), belinostat (PXD101), LAQ824,and panobinostat (LBH589), benzamides such as entinostat (MS-275),CI994, and mocetinostat (MGCD0103), nicotinamide, derivatives of NAD,dihydrocoumarin, naphthopyranone, and 2-hydroxynaphaldehydes.

Examples of calcineurin inhibitors include cyclosporine, pimecrolimus,voclosporin, and tacrolimus.

Examples of phosphatase inhibitors include BN82002 hydrochloride,CP-91149, calyculin A, cantharidic acid, cantharidin, cypermethrin,ethyl-3,4-dephostatin, fostriecin sodium salt, MAZ51,methyl-3,4-dephostatin, NSC 95397, norcantharidin, okadaic acid ammoniumsalt from prorocentrum concavum, okadaic acid, okadaic acid potassiumsalt, okadaic acid sodium salt, phenylarsine oxide, various phosphataseinhibitor cocktails, protein phosphatase 1C, protein phosphatase 2Ainhibitor protein, protein phosphatase 2A1, protein phosphatase 2A2,sodium orthovanadate.

In some embodiments, APC presentable antigens as described herein arealso coupled to synthetic nanocarriers. In some embodiments, the APCpresentable antigens are coupled to the same or different syntheticnanocarriers as to which the immunosuppressants are coupled. In otherembodiments, the APC presentable antigens are not coupled to anysynthetic nanocarriers. APC presentable antigens include any of theantigens provided herein. Such antigens include antigens associated withinflammatory, autoimmune diseases, allergy, graft versus host disease,organ or tissue rejection, transplant antigens and therapeutic proteinantigens.

Therapeutic proteins include, but are not limited to, infusibletherapeutic proteins, enzymes, enzyme cofactors, hormones, bloodclotting factors, cytokines and interferons, growth factors, monoclonalantibodies, and polyclonal antibodies (e.g., that are administered to asubject as a replacement therapy), and proteins associated with Pompe'sdisease (e.g., alglucosidase alfa, rhGAA (e.g., Myozyme and Lumizyme(Genzyme)). Therapeutic proteins also include proteins involved in theblood coagulation cascade. Therapeutic proteins include, but are notlimited to, Factor VIII, Factor VII, Factor IX, Factor V, von WillebrandFactor, von Heldebrant Factor, tissue plasminogen activator, insulin,growth hormone, erythropoietin alfa, VEGF, thrombopoietin, lysozyme,antithrombin and the like. Therapeutic proteins also include adipokines,such as leptin and adiponectin. Other examples of therapeutic proteinsare as described below and elsewhere herein. Also included are fragmentsor derivatives of any of the therapeutic proteins provided as theantigen.

Examples of therapeutic proteins used in enzyme replacement therapy ofsubjects having a lysosomal storage disorder include, but are notlimited to, imiglucerase for the treatment of Gaucher's disease (e.g.,CEREZYME™), a-galactosidase A (a-gal A) for the treatment of Fabrydisease (e.g., agalsidase beta, FABRYZYME™), acid a-glucosidase (GAA)for the treatment of Pompe disease (e.g., alglucosidase alfa, LUMIZYME™,MYOZYME™), arylsulfatase B for the treatment of Mucopolysaccharidoses(e.g., laronidase, ALDURAZYME™, idursulfase, ELAPRASE™, arylsulfatase B,NAGLAZYME™).

Examples of enzymes include oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases,lyases, isomerases, and ligases.

Examples of hormones include Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine),Serotonin, Thyroxine (or tetraiodothyronine) (a thyroid hormone),Triiodothyronine (a thyroid hormone), Epinephrine (or adrenaline),Norepinephrine (or noradrenaline), Dopamine (or prolactin inhibitinghormone), Antimullerian hormone (or mullerian inhibiting factor orhormone), Adiponectin, Adrenocorticotropic hormone (or corticotropin),Angiotensinogen and angiotensin, Antidiuretic hormone (or vasopressin,arginine vasopressin), Atrial-natriuretic peptide (or atriopeptin),Calcitonin, Cholecystokinin, Corticotropin-releasing hormone,Erythropoietin, Follicle-stimulating hormone, Gastrin, Ghrelin,Glucagon, Glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1), GIP, Gonadotropin-releasinghormone, Growth hormone-releasing hormone, Human chorionic gonadotropin,Human placental lactogen, Growth hormone, Inhibin, Insulin, Insulin-likegrowth factor (or somatomedin), Leptin, Luteinizing hormone, Melanocytestimulating hormone, Orexin, Oxytocin, Parathyroid hormone, Prolactin,Relaxin, Secretin, Somatostatin, Thrombopoietin, Thyroid-stimulatinghormone (or thyrotropin), Thyrotropin-releasing hormone, Cortisol,Aldosterone, Testosterone, Dehydroepiandrosterone, Androstenedione,Dihydrotestosterone, Estradiol, Estrone, Estriol, Progesterone,Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3), Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D3),Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, Prostacyclin, Thromboxane, Prolactinreleasing hormone, Lipotropin, Brain natriuretic peptide, NeuropeptideY, Histamine, Endothelin, Pancreatic polypeptide, Renin, and Enkephalin.

Examples of blood and blood coagulation factors include Factor I(fibrinogen), Factor II (prothrombin), tissue factor, Factor V(proaccelerin, labile factor), Factor VII (stable factor, proconvertin),Factor VIII (antihemophilic globulin), Factor IX (Christmas factor orplasma thromboplastin component), Factor X (Stuart-Prower factor),Factor Xa, Factor XI, Factor XII (Hageman factor), Factor XIII(fibrin-stabilizing factor), von Willebrand factor, prekallikrein(Fletcher factor), high-molecular weight kininogen (HMWK) (Fitzgeraldfactor), fibronectin, fibrin, thrombin, antithrombin III, heparincofactor II, protein C, protein S, protein Z, protein Z-related proteaseinhibitot (ZPI), plasminogen, alpha 2-antiplasmin, tissue plasminogenactivator (tPA), urokinase, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI1),plasminogen activator inhibitor-2 (PAI2), cancer procoagulant, andepoetin alfa (Epogen, Procrit).

Examples of cytokines include lymphokines, interleukins, and chemokines,type 1 cytokines, such as IFN-γ, TGF-β, and type 2 cytokines, such asIL-4, IL-10, and IL-13.

Examples of growth factors include Adrenomedullin (AM), Angiopoietin(Ang), Autocrine motility factor, Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs),Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), Epidermal growth factor (EGF),Erythropoietin (EPO), Fibroblast growth factor (FGF), Glial cellline-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), Granulocyte colony-stimulatingfactor (G-CSF), Granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor(GM-CSF), Growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF9), Hepatocyte growthfactor (HGF), Hepatoma-derived growth factor (HDGF), Insulin-like growthfactor (IGF), Migration-stimulating factor, Myostatin (GDF-8), Nervegrowth factor (NGF) and other neurotrophins, Platelet-derived growthfactor (PDGF), Thrombopoietin (TPO), Transforming growth factor alpha(TGF-α), Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β),Tumour_necrosis_factor-alpha (TNF-α), Vascular endothelial growth factor(VEGF), Wnt Signaling Pathway, placental growth factor (P1GF), [(FoetalBovine Somatotrophin)] (FBS), IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, andIL-7.

Examples of monoclonal antibodies include Abagovomab, Abciximab,Adalimumab, Adecatumumab, Afelimomab, Afutuzumab, Alacizumab pegol, ALD,Alemtuzumab, Altumomab pentetate, Anatumomab mafenatox, Anrukinzumab,Anti-thymocyte globin, Apolizumab, Arcitumomab, Aselizumab, Atlizumab(tocilizumab), Atorolimumab, Bapineuzumab, Basiliximab, Bavituximab,Bectumomab, Belimumab, Benralizumab, Bertilimumab, Besilesomab,Bevacizumab, Biciromab, Bivatuzumab mertansine, Blinatumomab,Brentuximab vedotin, Briakinumab, Canakinumab, Cantuzumab mertansine,Capromab pendetide, Catumaxomab, Cedelizumab, Certolizumab pegol,Cetuximab, Citatuzumab bogatox, Cixutumumab, Clenoliximab, Clivatuzumabtetraxetan, Conatumumab, Dacetuzumab, Daclizumab, Daratumumab,Denosumab, Detumomab, Dorlimomab aritox, Dorlixizumab, Ecromeximab,Eculizumab, Edobacomab, Edrecolomab, Efalizumab, Efungumab, Elotuzumab,Elsilimomab, Enlimomab pegol, Epitumomab cituxetan, Epratuzumab,Erlizumab, Ertumaxomab, Etaracizumab, Exbivirumab, Fanolesomab,Faralimomab, Farletuzumab, Felvizumab, Fezakinumab, Figitumumab,Fontolizumab, Foravirumab, Fresolimumab, Galiximab, Gantenerumab,Gavilimomab, Gemtuzumab ozogamicin, GCl008, Girentuximab, Glembatumumabvedotin, Golimumab, Gomiliximab, lbalizumab, Ibritumomab tiuxetan,Igovomab, Imciromab, Infliximab, Intetumumab, Inolimomab, Inotuzumabozogamicin, Ipilimumab, Iratumumab, Keliximab, Labetuzumab,Lebrikizumab, Lemalesomab, Lerdelimumab, Lexatumumab, Libivirumab,Lintuzumab, Lorvotuzumab mertansine, Lucatumumab, Lumiliximab,Mapatumumab, Maslimomab, Matuzumab, Mepolizumab, Metelimumab,Milatuzumab, Minretumomab, Mitumomab, Morolimumab, Motavizumab,Muromonab-CD3, Nacolomab tafenatox, Naptumomab estafenatox, Natalizumab,Nebacumab, Necitumumab, Nerelimomab, Nimotuzumab, Nofetumomab merpentan,Ocrelizumab, Odulimomab, Ofatumumab, Olaratumab, Omalizumab, Oportuzumabmonatox, Oregovomab, Otelixizumab, Pagibaximab, Palivizumab,Panitumumab, Panobacumab, Pascolizumab, Pemtumomab, Pertuzumab,Pexelizumab, Pintumomab, Priliximab, Pritumumab, Rafivirumab,Ramucirumab, Ranibizumab, Raxibacumab, Regavirumab Reslizumab,Rilotumumab, Rituximab, Robatumumab, Rontalizumab, Rovelizumab,Ruplizumab, Satumomab pendetide, Sevirumab, Sibrotuzumab, Sifalimumab,Siltuximab, Siplizumab, Solanezumab, Sonepcizumab, Sontuzumab,Stamulumab, Sulesomab, Tacatuzumab tetraxetan, Tadocizumab, Talizumab,Tanezumab, Taplitumomab paptox, Tefibazumab, Telimomab aritox,Tenatumomab, Teneliximab, Teplizumab, Ticilimumab (tremelimumab),Tigatuzumab, Tocilizumab (atlizumab), Toralizumab, Tositumomab,Trastuzumab, Tremelimumab, Tucotuzumab celmoleukin, Tuvirumab,Urtoxazumab, Ustekinumab, Vapaliximab, Vedolizumab, Veltuzumab,Vepalimomab, Visilizumab, Volociximab, Votumumab, Zalutumumab,Zanolimumab, Ziralimumab, and Zolimomab aritox.

Examples of infusion therapy or injectable therapeutic proteins include,for example, Tocilizumab (Roche/Actemra®), alpha-1 antitrypsin(Kamada/AAT), Hematide® (Affymax and Takeda, synthetic peptide),albinterferon alfa-2b (Novartis/Zalbin™) Rhucin® (Pharming Group, C1inhibitor replacement therapy), tesamorelin (Theratechnologies/Egrifta,synthetic growth hormone-releasing factor), ocrelizumab (Genentech,Roche and Biogen), belimumab (GlaxoSmithKline/Benlysta®), pegloticase(Savient Pharmaceuticals/Krystexxa™), taliglucerase alfa(Protalix/Uplyso), agalsidase alfa (Shire/Replagal®), velaglucerase alfa(Shire).

Additional therapeutic proteins useful in accordance to aspects of thisinvention will be apparent to those of skill in the art, and theinvention is not limited in this respect.

In some embodiments, a component, such as an antigen orimmunosuppressant, may be isolated. Isolated refers to the element beingseparated from its native environment and present in sufficientquantities to permit its identification or use. This means, for example,the element may be (i) selectively produced by expression cloning or(ii) purified as by chromatography or electrophoresis. Isolated elementsmay be, but need not be, substantially pure. Because an isolated elementmay be admixed with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient in apharmaceutical preparation, the element may comprise only a smallpercentage by weight of the preparation. The element is nonethelessisolated in that it has been separated from the substances with which itmay be associated in living systems, i.e., isolated from other lipids orproteins. Any of the elements provided herein may be isolated. Any ofthe antigens provided herein can be included in the compositions inisolated form.

D. METHODS OF MAKING AND USING THE INVENTIVE COMPOSITIONS AND RELATEDMETHODS

Synthetic nanocarriers may be prepared using a wide variety of methodsknown in the art. For example, synthetic nanocarriers can be formed bymethods as nanoprecipitation, flow focusing fluidic channels, spraydrying, single and double emulsion solvent evaporation, solventextraction, phase separation, milling, microemulsion procedures,microfabrication, nanofabrication, sacrificial layers, simple andcomplex coacervation, and other methods well known to those of ordinaryskill in the art. Alternatively or additionally, aqueous and organicsolvent syntheses for monodisperse semiconductor, conductive, magnetic,organic, and other nanomaterials have been described (Pellegrino et al.,2005, Small, 1:48; Murray et al., 2000, Ann. Rev. Mat. Sci., 30:545; andTrindade et al., 2001, Chem. Mat., 13:3843). Additional methods havebeen described in the literature (see, e.g., Doubrow, Ed.,“Microcapsules and Nanoparticles in Medicine and Pharmacy,” CRC Press,Boca Raton, 1992; Mathiowitz et al., 1987, J. Control. Release, 5:13;Mathiowitz et al., 1987, Reactive Polymers, δ: 275; and Mathiowitz etal., 1988, J. Appl. Polymer Sci., 35:755; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,578,325 and6,007,845; P. Paolicelli et al., “Surface-modified PLGA-basedNanoparticles that can Efficiently Associate and Deliver Virus-likeParticles” Nanomedicine. 5(6):843-853 (2010)).

Various materials may be encapsulated into synthetic nanocarriers asdesirable using a variety of methods including but not limited to C.Astete et al., “Synthesis and characterization of PLGA nanoparticles” J.Biomater. Sci. Polymer Edn, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 247-289 (2006); K.Avgoustakis “Pegylated Poly(Lactide) and Poly(Lactide-Co-Glycolide)Nanoparticles: Preparation, Properties and Possible Applications in DrugDelivery” Current Drug Delivery 1:321-333 (2004); C. Reis et al.,“Nanoencapsulation I. Methods for preparation of drug-loaded polymericnanoparticles” Nanomedicine 2:8-21 (2006); P. Paolicelli et al.,“Surface-modified PLGA-based Nanoparticles that can EfficientlyAssociate and Deliver Virus-like Particles” Nanomedicine. 5(6):843-853(2010). Other methods suitable for encapsulating materials intosynthetic nanocarriers may be used, including without limitation methodsdisclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,632,671 to Unger Oct. 14, 2003.

In certain embodiments, synthetic nanocarriers are prepared by ananoprecipitation process or spray drying. Conditions used in preparingsynthetic nanocarriers may be altered to yield particles of a desiredsize or property (e.g., hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, externalmorphology, “stickiness,” shape, etc.). The method of preparing thesynthetic nanocarriers and the conditions (e.g., solvent, temperature,concentration, air flow rate, etc.) used may depend on the materials tobe coupled to the synthetic nanocarriers and/or the composition of thepolymer matrix.

If particles prepared by any of the above methods have a size rangeoutside of the desired range, particles can be sized, for example, usinga sieve.

Components (i.e., elements) of the inventive synthetic nanocarriers(such as moieties of which an immunofeature surface is comprised,targeting moieties, polymeric matrices, antigens, immunosuppressants andthe like) may be coupled to the overall synthetic nanocarrier, e.g., byone or more covalent bonds, or may be coupled by means of one or morelinkers. Additional methods of functionalizing synthetic nanocarriersmay be adapted from Published US Patent Application 2006/0002852 toSaltzman et al., Published US Patent Application 2009/0028910 toDeSimone et al., or Published International Patent ApplicationWO/2008/127532 A1 to Murthy et al.

Alternatively or additionally, synthetic nanocarriers can be coupled toelements as provided herein directly or indirectly via non-covalentinteractions. In non-covalent embodiments, the non-covalent coupling ismediated by non-covalent interactions including but not limited tocharge interactions, affinity interactions, metal coordination, physicaladsorption, host-guest interactions, hydrophobic interactions, TTstacking interactions, hydrogen bonding interactions, van der Waalsinteractions, magnetic interactions, electrostatic interactions,dipole-dipole interactions, and/or combinations thereof. Such couplingsmay be arranged to be on an external surface or an internal surface ofan inventive synthetic nanocarrier. In embodiments, encapsulation and/orabsorption is a form of coupling. In embodiments, the inventivesynthetic nanocarriers can be combined with an antigen by admixing inthe same vehicle or delivery system.

Populations of synthetic nanocarriers may be combined to formpharmaceutical dosage forms according to the present invention usingtraditional pharmaceutical mixing methods. These include liquid-liquidmixing in which two or more suspensions, each containing one or moresubsets of nanocarriers, are directly combined or are brought togethervia one or more vessels containing diluent. As synthetic nanocarriersmay also be produced or stored in a powder form, dry powder-powdermixing could be performed as could the re-suspension of two or morepowders in a common media. Depending on the properties of thenanocarriers and their interaction potentials, there may be advantagesconferred to one or another route of mixing.

Typical inventive compositions that comprise synthetic nanocarriers maycomprise inorganic or organic buffers (e.g., sodium or potassium saltsof phosphate, carbonate, acetate, or citrate) and pH adjustment agents(e.g., hydrochloric acid, sodium or potassium hydroxide, salts ofcitrate or acetate, amino acids and their salts) antioxidants (e.g.,ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol), surfactants (e.g., polysorbate 20,polysorbate 80, polyoxyethylene9-10 nonyl phenol, sodium desoxycholate),solution and/or cryo/lyo stabilizers (e.g., sucrose, lactose, mannitol,trehalose), osmotic adjustment agents (e.g., salts or sugars),antibacterial agents (e.g., benzoic acid, phenol, gentamicin),antifoaming agents (e.g., polydimethylsilozone), preservatives (e.g.,thimerosal, 2-phenoxyethanol, EDTA), polymeric stabilizers andviscosity-adjustment agents (e.g., polyvinylpyrrolidone, poloxamer 488,carboxymethylcellulose) and co-solvents (e.g., glycerol, polyethyleneglycol, ethanol).

Compositions according to the invention comprise inventive syntheticnanocarriers in combination with pharmaceutically acceptable excipients.The compositions may be made using conventional pharmaceuticalmanufacturing and compounding techniques to arrive at useful dosageforms. Techniques suitable for use in practicing the present inventionmay be found in Handbook of Industrial Mixing: Science and Practice,Edited by Edward L. Paul, Victor A. Atiemo-Obeng, and Suzanne M. Kresta,2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; and Pharmaceutics: The Science of DosageForm Design, 2nd Ed. Edited by M. E. Auten, 2001, Churchill Livingstone.In an embodiment, inventive synthetic nanocarriers are suspended insterile saline solution for injection together with a preservative.

It is to be understood that the compositions of the invention can bemade in any suitable manner, and the invention is in no way limited tocompositions that can be produced using the methods described herein.Selection of an appropriate method may require attention to theproperties of the particular moieties being associated.

In some embodiments, inventive synthetic nanocarriers are manufacturedunder sterile conditions or are terminally sterilized. This can ensurethat resulting compositions are sterile and non-infectious, thusimproving safety when compared to non-sterile compositions. Thisprovides a valuable safety measure, especially when subjects receivingsynthetic nanocarriers have immune defects, are suffering frominfection, and/or are susceptible to infection. In some embodiments,inventive synthetic nanocarriers may be lyophilized and stored insuspension or as lyophilized powder depending on the formulationstrategy for extended periods without losing activity.

The compositions of the invention can be administered by a variety ofroutes, including or not limited to subcutaneous, intranasal, oral,intravenous, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, transmucosal, transmucosal,sublingual, rectal, ophthalmic, pulmonary, intradermal, transdermal,transcutaneous or intradermal or by a combination of these routes.Routes of administration also include administration by inhalation orpulmonary aerosol. Techniques for preparing aerosol delivery systems arewell known to those of skill in the art (see, for example, Sciarra andCutie, “Aerosols,” in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th edition,1990, pp. 1694-1712; incorporated by reference).

The transplantable grafts or therapeutic proteins provided as acell-based therapy of the invention may be administered by parenteral,intraarterial, intranasal or intravenous administration or by injectionto lymph nodes or anterior chamber of the eye or by local administrationto an organ or tissue of interest. The administration may be bysubcutaneous, intrathecal, intraventricular, intramuscular,intraperitoneal, intracoronary, intrapancreatic, intrahepatic orbronchial injection.

The compositions of the invention can be administered in effectiveamounts, such as the effective amounts described elsewhere herein. Dosesof dosage forms contain varying amounts of populations of syntheticnanocarriers and/or varying amounts of antigens and/orimmunosuppressants, according to the invention. The amount of syntheticnanocarriers and/or antigens and/or immunosuppressants present in theinventive dosage forms can be varied according to the nature of theantigens and/or immunosuppressants, the therapeutic benefit to beaccomplished, and other such parameters. In embodiments, dose rangingstudies can be conducted to establish optimal therapeutic amount of thepopulation of synthetic nanocarriers and the amount of antigens and/orimmunosuppressants to be present in the dosage form. In embodiments, thesynthetic nanocarriers and/or the antigens and/or immunosuppressants arepresent in the dosage form in an amount effective to generate atolerogenic immune response to the antigens upon administration to asubject. It may be possible to determine amounts of the antigens and/orimmunosuppressants effective to generate a tolerogenic immune responseusing conventional dose ranging studies and techniques in subjects.Inventive dosage forms may be administered at a variety of frequencies.In a preferred embodiment, at least one administration of the dosageform is sufficient to generate a pharmacologically relevant response. Inmore preferred embodiments, at least two administrations, at least threeadministrations, or at least four administrations, of the dosage formare utilized to ensure a pharmacologically relevant response.

Prophylactic administration of the inventive compositions can beinitiated prior to the onset of disease, disorder or condition ortherapeutic administration can be initiated after a disorder, disorderor condition is established.

In some embodiments, administration of synthetic nanocarriers isundertaken e.g., prior to administration of a therapeutic protein,transplantable graft or exposure to an allergen. In exemplaryembodiments, synthetic nanocarriers are administered at one or moretimes including, but not limited to, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10,9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or 0 days prior to administration of atherapeutic protein, transplantable graft or exposure to an allergen. Inaddition or alternatively, synthetic nanocarriers can be administered toa subject following administration of a therapeutic protein,transplantable graft or exposure to an allergen. In exemplaryembodiments, synthetic nanocarriers are administered at one or moretimes including, but not limited to, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, etc. days following administration of atherapeutic protein, transplantable graft or exposure to an allergen.

In some embodiments, a maintenance dose (e.g., of a syntheticnanocarrier composition provided herein) is administered to a subjectafter an initial administration has resulted in a tolerogenic responsein the subject, for example to maintain the tolerogenic effect achievedafter the initial dose, to prevent an undesired immune reaction in thesubject, or to prevent the subject becoming a subject at risk ofexperiencing an undesired immune response or an undesired level of animmune response. In some embodiments, the maintenance dose is the samedose as the initial dose the subject received. In some embodiments, themaintenance dose is a lower dose than the initial dose. For example, insome embodiments, the maintenance dose is about 3/4, about 2/3, about1/2, about 1/3, about 1/4, about 1/8, about 1/10, about 1/20, about1/25, about 1/50, about 1/100, about 1/1,000, about 1/10,000, about1/100,000, or about 1/1,000,000 (weight/weight) of the initial dose.

The compositions and methods described herein can be used to induce orenhance a tolerogenic immune response and/or to suppress, modulate,direct or redirect an undesired immune response for the purpose ofimmune suppression. The compositions and methods described herein can beused in the diagnosis, prophylaxis and/or treatment of diseases,disorders or conditions in which immune suppression (e.g., tolerogenicimmune response) would confer a treatment benefit. Such diseases,disorders or conditions include autoimmune diseases, inflammatorydiseases, allergies, organ or tissue rejection and graft versus hostdisease. The compositions and methods described herein can also be usedin subjects who have undergone or will undergo transplantation. Thecompositions and methods described herein can also be used in subjectswho have received, are receiving or will receive a therapeutic proteinagainst which they have generated or are expected to generate anundesired immune response.

Autoimmune diseases include, but are not limited to, rheumatoidarthritis, multiple sclerosis, immune-mediated or Type I diabetesmellitus, inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., Crohn's disease orulcerative colitis), systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis,scleroderma, autoimmune thyroid disease, alopecia greata, Grave'sdisease, Guillain-Barre syndrome, celiac disease, Sjögren's syndrome,rheumatic fever, gastritis, autoimmune atrophic gastritis, autoimmunehepatitis, insulitis, oophoritis, orchitis, uveitis, phacogenic uveitis,myasthenia gravis, primary myxoedema, pernicious anemia, autoimmunehaemolytic anemia, Addison's disease, scleroderma, Goodpasture'ssyndrome, nephritis, for example, glomerulonephritis, psoriasis,pemphigus vulgaris, pemphigoid, sympathetic opthalmia, idiopathicthrombocylopenic purpura, idiopathic feucopenia, Wegener'sgranulomatosis and poly/dermatomyositis.

Some additional exemplary autoimmune diseases, associated autoantigens,and autoantibodies, which are contemplated for use in the invention, aredescribed in Table 1 below:

Autoantibody Type Autoantibody Autoantigen Autoimmune disease ordisorder Antinuclear Anti-SSA/Ro ribonucleoproteins Systemic lupuserythematosus, neonatal antibodies autoantibodies heart block, primarySjögren's syndrome Anti-La/SS-B ribonucleoproteins Primary Sjögren'ssyndrome autoantibodies Anti-centromere centromere CREST syndromeantibodies Anti-neuronal Ri[disambiguation Opsoclonus nuclear antibody-2needed] Anti-dsDNA double-stranded SLE DNA Anti-Jo1 histidine-tRNAInflammatory myopathy ligase Anti-Smith snRNP core proteins SLE Anti-Type I Systemic sclerosis (anti-Scl-70 antibodies) topoisomerasetopoisomerase antibodies Anti-histone histones SLE and Drug-inducedLE[2] antibodies Anti-p62 nucleoporin 62 Primary biliarycirrhosis[3][4][5] antibodies[3] Anti-sp100 Sp100 nuclear antibodies [4]antigen Anti-glycoprotein- nucleoporin 210 kDa 210 antibodies[5] Anti-Anti-tTG Coeliac disease transglutaminase Anti-eTG Dermatitisherpetiformis antibodies Anti-ganglioside ganglioside GQ1B Miller-FisherSyndrome antibodies ganglioside GD3 Acute motor axonal neuropathy (AMAN)ganglioside GM1 Multifocal motor neuropathy with conduction block (MMN)Anti-actin actin Coeliac disease anti-actin antibodies antibodiescorrelated with the level of intestinal damage [6][7] Liver kidneyAutoimmune hepatitis.[8] microsomal type 1 antibody Lupus anticoagulantAnti-thrombin thrombin Systemic lupus erythematosus antibodiesAnti-neutrophil phospholipid Antiphospholipid syndrome cytoplasmicc-ANCA proteins in Wegener's granulomatosis antibody neutrophilcytoplasm p-ANCA neutrophil Microscopic polyangiitis, Churg-Straussperinuclear syndrome, systemic vasculitides (non- specific) Rheumatoidfactor IgG Rheumatoid arthritis Anti-smooth muscle smooth muscle Chronicautoimmune hepatitis antibody Anti-mitochondrial mitochondria Primarybiliary cirrhosis[9] antibody Anti-SRP signal recognitionPolymyositis[10] particle exosome complex Scleromyositis nicotinicMyasthenia gravis acetylcholine receptor muscle-specific Myastheniagravis kinase (MUSK) Anti-VGCC voltage-gated Lambert-Eaton myasthenicsyndrome calcium channel (P/Q-type) thyroid peroxidase Hashimoto'sthyroiditis (microsomal) TSH receptor Graves' disease Hu Paraneoplasticcerebellar syndrome Yo (cerebellar Paraneoplastic cerebellar syndromePurkinje Cells) amphiphysin Stiff person syndrome, paraneoplasticcerebellar syndrome Anti-VGKC voltage-gated Limbic encephalitis, Isaac'sSyndrome potassium channel (autoimmune neuromyotonia) (VGKC) basalganglia Sydenham's chorea, paediatric autoimmune neuronsneuropsychiatric disease associated with Streptococcus (PANDAS)N-methyl-D- Encephalitis aspartate receptor (NMDA) glutamic acidDiabetes mellitus type 1, stiff person decarboxylase syndrome (GAD)aquaporin-4 Neuromyelitis optica (Devic's syndrome)

Inflammatory diseases include, but are not limited to, Alzheimer's,arthritis, asthma, atherosclerosis, Crohn's disease, colitis, cysticfibrosis, dermatitis, diverticulitis, hepatitis, irritable bowelsyndrome (IBS), lupus erythematous, muscular dystrophy, nephritis,Parkinson's, shingles and ulcerative colitis. Inflammatory diseases alsoinclude, for example, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructivepulmonary disease (COPD), bronchiectasis, chronic cholecystitis,tuberculosis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, sepsis, sarcoidosis, silicosisand other pneumoconioses, and an implanted foreign body in a wound, butare not so limited. As used herein, the term “sepsis” refers to awell-recognized clinical syndrome associated with a host's systemicinflammatory response to microbial invasion.

The term “sepsis” as used herein refers to a condition that is typicallysignaled by fever or hypothermia, tachycardia, and tachypnea, and insevere instances can progress to hypotension, organ dysfunction, andeven death.

In some embodiments, the inflammatory disease is non-autoimmuneinflammatory bowel disease, post-surgical adhesions, coronary arterydisease, hepatic fibrosis, acute respiratory distress syndrome, acuteinflammatory pancreatitis, endoscopic retrogradecholangiopancreatography-induced pancreatitis, burns, atherogenesis ofcoronary, cerebral and peripheral arteries, appendicitis, cholecystitis,diverticulitis, visceral fibrotic disorders, wound healing, skinscarring disorders (keloids, hidradenitis suppurativa), granulomatousdisorders (sarcoidosis, primary biliary cirrhosis), asthma, pyodermagandrenosum, Sweet's syndrome, Behcet's disease, primary sclerosingcholangitis or an abscess. In some preferred embodiment the inflammatorydisease is inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., Crohn's disease orulcerative colitis).

Inflammatory diseases include, but are not limited to, Alzheimer's,Ankylosing spondylitis, arthritis, asthma, atherosclerosis, Behcet'sdisease, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy,Crohn's disease, autoimmune inflammatory bowel disease,insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, diabetes mellitus, juvenilediabetes, spontaneous autoimmune diabetes, gastritis, autoimmuneatrophic gastritis, autoimmune hepatitis, thyroiditis, Hashimoto'sthyroiditis, insulitis, oophoritis, orchitis, uveitis, phacogenicuveitis, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, primary myxoedema,thyrotoxicosis, pernicious anemia, autoimmune haemolytic anemia,Addison's disease, Anklosing spondylitis, sarcoidosis, scleroderma,Goodpasture's syndrome, Guillain-Barre syndrome, Graves' disease,glomerulonephritis, psoriasis, pemphigus vulgaris, pemphigoid, excema,bulous pemiphigous, sympathetic opthalmia, idiopathic thrombocylopenicpurpura, idiopathic feucopenia, Sjogren's syndrome, systemic sclerosis,Wegener's granulomatosis, poly/dermatomyositis, primary biliarycirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, lupus or systemic lupuserythematosus.

Graft versus host disease (GVHD) is a complication that can occur aftera pluripotent cell (e.g., stem cell) or bone marrow transplant in whichthe newly transplanted material results in an attack on the transplantrecipient's body. In some instances, GVHD takes place after a bloodtransfusion. Graft-versus-host-disease can be divided into acute andchronic forms. The acute or fulminant form of the disease (aGVHD) isnormally observed within the first 100 days post-transplant, and is amajor challenge to transplants owing to associated morbidity andmortality. The chronic form of graft-versus-host-disease (cGVHD)normally occurs after 100 days. The appearance of moderate to severecases of cGVHD adversely influences long-term survival.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles with CoupledIbuprofen (Prophetic)

Mesoporous SiO2 nanoparticle cores are created through a sol-gelprocess. Hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) (0.5 g) is dissolvedin deionized water (500 mL), and then 2 M aqueous NaOH solution (3.5 mL)is added to the CTAB solution. The solution is stirred for 30 min, andthen Tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) (2.5 mL) is added to the solution. Theresulting gel is stirred for 3 h at a temperature of 80° C. The whiteprecipitate which forms is captured by filtration, followed by washingwith deionized water and drying at room temperature. The remainingsurfactant is then extracted from the particles by suspension in anethanolic solution of HCl overnight. The particles are washed withethanol, centrifuged, and redispersed under ultrasonication. This washprocedure is repeated two additional times.

The SiO2 nanoparticles are then functionalized with amino groups using(3-aminopropyl)-triethoxysilane (APTMS). To do this, the particles aresuspended in ethanol (30 mL), and APTMS (50 μL) is added to thesuspension. The suspension is allowed to stand at room temperature for 2h and then is boiled for 4 h, keeping the volume constant byperiodically adding ethanol. Remaining reactants are removed by fivecycles of washing by centrifugation and redispersing in pure ethanol.

In a separate reaction, 1-4 nm diameter gold seeds are created. Allwater used in this reaction is first deionized and then distilled fromglass. Water (45.5 mL) is added to a 100 mL round-bottom flask. Whilestirring, 0.2 M aqueous NaOH (1.5 mL) is added, followed by a 1% aqueoussolution of tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride (THPC) (1.0 mL).Two minutes after the addition of THPC solution, a 10 mg/mL aqueoussolution of chloroauric acid (2 mL), which has been aged at least 15min, is added. The gold seeds are purified through dialysis againstwater.

To form the core-shell nanocarriers, the amino-functionalized SiO2nanoparticles formed above are first mixed with the gold seeds for 2 hat room temperature. The gold-decorated SiO2 particles are collectedthrough centrifugation and mixed with an aqueous solution of chloroauricacid and potassium bicarbonate to form the gold shell. The particles arethen washed by centrifugation and redispersed in water. Ibuprofen isloaded by suspending the particles in a solution of sodium ibuprofen (1mg/L) for 72 h. Free ibuprofen is then washed from the particles bycentrifugation and redispersing in water.

Example 2 Liposomes Containing Cyclosporine A (Prophetic)

The liposomes are formed using thin film hydration.1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) (32 μmol),cholesterol (32 μmol), and cyclosporin A (6.4 μmol) are dissolved inpure chloroform (3 mL). This lipid solution is added to a 50 mLround-bottom flask, and the solvent is evaporated on a rotary evaporatorat a temperature of 60° C. The flask is then flushed with nitrogen gasto remove remaining solvent. Phosphate buffered saline (2 mL) and fiveglass beads are added to the flask, and the lipid film is hydrated byshaking at 60° C. for 1 h to form a suspension. The suspension istransferred to a small pressure tube and sonicated at 60° C. for fourcycles of 30 s pulses with a 30 s delay between each pulse. Thesuspension is then left undisturbed at room temperature for 2 h to allowfor complete hydration. The liposomes are washed by centrifugationfollowed by resuspension in fresh phosphate buffered saline.

Example 3 Polymeric Nanocarrier Containing Polymer-Rapamycin Conjugate(Prophetic)

Preparation of PLGA-Rapamycin Conjugate:

PLGA polymer with acid end group (7525 DLG1A, acid number 0.46 mmol/g,Lakeshore Biomaterials; 5 g, 2.3 mmol, 1.0 eq) is dissolved in 30 mL ofdichloromethane (DCM). N,N-Dicyclohexylcarbodimide (1.2 eq, 2.8 mmol,0.57 g) is added followed by rapamycin (1.0 eq, 2.3 mmol, 2.1 g) and4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) (2.0 eq, 4.6 mmol, 0.56 g). The mixtureis stirred at rt for 2 days. The mixture is then filtered to removeinsoluble dicyclohexylurea. The filtrate is concentrated to ca. 10 mL involume and added to 100 mL of isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to precipitate outthe PLGA-rapamycin conjugate. The IPA layer is removed and the polymeris then washed with 50 mL of IPA and 50 mL of methyl t-butyl ether(MTBE). The polymer is then dried under vacuum at 35 C for 2 days togive PLGA-rapamycin as a white solid (ca. 6.5 g).

Preparation of Nanocarrier Containing PLGA-Rapamycin Conjugate andOvalbumin Peptide (323-339):

Nanocarrier containing PLGA-rapamycin is prepared according to theprocedure described in Example 1 as follows:

Solutions for nanocarrier formation are prepared as follows:

Solution 1: Ovalbumin peptide 323-339 @ 20 mg/mL in dilute hydrochloricacid aqueous solution. The solution is prepared by dissolving ovalbuminpeptide in 0.13 M hydrochloric acid solution at room temperature.Solution 2: PLGA-rapamycin @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. Thesolution is prepared by dissolving PLGA-rapamycin in pure methylenechloride. Solution 3: PLA-PEG @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. Thesolution is prepared by dissolving PLA-PEG in pure methylene chloride.Solution 4: Polyvinyl alcohol @ 50 mg/mL in 100 mM pH 8 phosphatebuffer.

A primary water-in-oil emulsion is prepared first. W1/O1 is prepared bycombining solution 1 (0.2 mL), solution 2 (0.75 mL), and solution 3(0.25 mL) in a small pressure tube and sonicating at 50% amplitude for40 seconds using a Branson Digital Sonifier 250. A secondary emulsion(W1/O1/W2) is then prepared by combining solution 4 (3.0 mL) with theprimary W1/O1 emulsion, vortexing for 10 s, and sonicating at 30%amplitude for 60 seconds using the Branson Digital Sonifier 250. TheW1/O1/W2 emulsion is added to a beaker containing 70 mM pH 8 phosphatebuffer solution (30 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 2 hours toallow the methylene chloride to evaporate and for the nanocarriers toform. A portion of the nanocarriers is washed by transferring thenanocarrier suspension to a centrifuge tube and centrifuging at 75,600×gand 4° C. for 35 min, removing the supernatant, and re-suspending thepellet in phosphate buffered saline. The washing procedure is repeated,and the pellet is re-suspended in phosphate buffered saline for a finalnanocarrier dispersion of about 10 mg/mL.

Example 4 Preparation of Gold Nanocarriers (AuNCs) Containing Rapamycin(Prophetic) Preparation of HS-PEG-rapamycin

A solution of PEG acid disulfide (1.0 eq), rapamycin (2.0-2.5 eq), DCC(2.5 eq) and DMAP (3.0 eq) in dry DMF is stirred at rt overnight. Theinsoluble dicyclohexylurea is removed by filtration and the filtrate isadded to isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to precipitate out thePEG-disulfide-di-rapamycin ester and washed with IPA and dried. Thepolymer is then treated with tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine hydrochloridein DMF to reduce the PEG disulfide to thiol PEG rapamycin ester(HS-PEG-rapamycin). The resulting polymer is recovered by precipitationfrom IPA and dried as previously described and analyzed by H NMR andGPC.

Formation of Gold NCs (AuNCs):

An aq. solution of 500 mL of 1 mM HAuCl4 is heated to reflux for 10 minwith vigorous stirring in a 1 L round-bottom flask equipped with acondenser. A solution of 50 mL of 40 mM of trisodium citrate is thenrapidly added to the stirring solution. The resulting deep wine redsolution is kept at reflux for 25-30 min and the heat is withdrawn andthe solution is cooled to room temperature. The solution is thenfiltered through a 0.8 μm membrane filter to give the AuNCs solution.The AuNCs are characterized using visible spectroscopy and transmissionelectron microscopy. The AuNCs are ca. 20 nm diameter capped by citratewith peak absorption at 520 nm.

AuNCs Conjugate with HS-PEG-rapamycin:

A solution of 150 μl of HS-PEG-rapamycin (10 μM in 10 mM pH 9.0carbonate buffer) is added to 1 mL of 20 nm diameter citrate-capped goldnanocarriers (1.16 nM) to produce a molar ratio of thiol to gold of2500:1. The mixture is stirred at room temperature under argon for 1hour to allow complete exchange of thiol with citrate on the goldnanocarriers. The AuNCs with PEG-rapamycin on the surface is thenpurified by centrifuge at 12,000 g for 30 minutes. The supernatant isdecanted and the pellet containing AuNC—S-PEG-rapamycin is then pelletwashed with 1×PBS buffer. The purified Gold-PEG-rapamycin nanocarriersare then resuspend in suitable buffer for further analysis andbioassays.

Example 5 Immune Response of Synthetic Nanocarriers with CoupledRapamycin With and without Ovalbumin Peptide (323-339) Materials

Ovalbumin peptide 323-339, a 17 amino acid peptide known to be a T and Bcell epitope of Ovalbumin protein, was purchased from Bachem AmericasInc. (3132 Kashiwa Street, Torrance Calif. 90505; Part #4065609).Rapamycin was purchased from TSZ CHEM (185 Wilson Street, Framingham,Mass. 01702; Product Catalogue # R1017). PLGA with a lactide:glycolideratio of 3:1 and an inherent viscosity of 0.75 dL/g was purchased fromSurModics Pharmaceuticals (756 Tom Martin Drive, Birmingham, Ala. 35211;Product Code 7525 DLG 7A). Polyvinyl alcohol (85-89% hydrolyzed) waspurchased from EMD Chemicals (Product Number 1.41350.1001).

Solution 1: Ovalbumin peptide 323-339 @ 20 mg/mL in dilute hydrochloricacid aqueous solution. The solution was prepared by dissolving ovalbuminpeptide in 0.13 M hydrochloric acid solution at room temperature.Solution 2: Rapamycin @ 50 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution wasprepared by dissolving rapamycin in pure methylene chloride. Solution 3:PLGA @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution was prepared bydissolving PLGA in pure methylene chloride. Solution 4: Polyvinylalcohol @ 50 mg/mL in 100 mM pH 8 phosphate buffer.

Method for Preparing Synthetic Nanocarrier Containing Rapamycin andOvalbumin (323-339)

A primary water-in-oil emulsion was prepared first. W1/O1 was preparedby combining solution 1 (0.2 mL), solution 2 (0.2 mL), and solution 3(1.0 mL) in a small pressure tube and sonicating at 50% amplitude for 40seconds using a Branson Digital Sonifier 250. A secondary emulsion(W1/O1/W2) was then prepared by combining solution 4 (3.0 mL) with theprimary W1/O1 emulsion, vortexing for 10 s, and sonicating at 30%amplitude for 60 seconds using the Branson Digital Sonifier 250.

The W1/O1/W2 emulsion was added to a beaker containing 70 mM pH 8phosphate buffer solution (30 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 2hours to allow the methylene chloride to evaporate and for the syntheticnanocarriers to form. A portion of the synthetic nanocarriers werewashed by transferring the synthetic nanocarrier suspension to acentrifuge tube and centrifuging at 21,000×g and 4° C. for one hour,removing the supernatant, and re-suspending the pellet in phosphatebuffered saline. The washing procedure was repeated, and the pellet wasre-suspended in phosphate buffered saline for a final syntheticnanocarrier dispersion of about 10 mg/mL.

The amounts of peptide and rapamycin in the synthetic nanocarriers weredetermined by HPLC analysis. The total dry-synthetic nanocarrier massper mL of suspension was determined by a gravimetric method.

Method for Producing Synthetic Nanocarrier Containing Rapamycin

A primary water-in-oil emulsion was prepared first. W1/O1 was preparedby combining 0.13 M hydrochloric acid solution (0.2 mL), solution 2 (0.2mL), and solution 3 (1.0 mL) in a small pressure tube and sonicating at50% amplitude for 40 seconds using a Branson Digital Sonifier 250. Asecondary emulsion (W1/O1/W2) was then prepared by combining solution 4(3.0 mL) with the primary W1/O1 emulsion, vortexing for 10 s, andsonicating at 30% amplitude for 60 seconds using the Branson DigitalSonifier 250.

The W1/O1/W2 emulsion was added to a beaker containing 70 mM pH 8phosphate buffer solution (30 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 2hours to allow the methylene chloride to evaporate and for the syntheticnanocarriers to form. A portion of the synthetic nanocarriers werewashed by transferring the synthetic nanocarrier suspension to acentrifuge tube and centrifuging at 21,000×g and 4° C. for one hour,removing the supernatant, and re-suspending the pellet in phosphatebuffered saline. The washing procedure was repeated, and the pellet wasre-suspended in phosphate buffered saline for a final syntheticnanocarrier dispersion of about 10 mg/mL.

The amount of rapamycin in the synthetic nanocarrier was determined byHPLC analysis. The total dry-synthetic nanocarrier mass per mL ofsuspension was determined by a gravimetric method.

Method for Measuring Rapamycin Load

Approximately 3 mg of synthetic nanocarriers were collected andcentrifuged to separate supernatant from synthetic nanocarrier pellet.Acetonitrile was added to the pellet, and the sample was sonicated andcentrifuged to remove any insoluble material. The supernatant and pelletwere injected on RP-HPLC and absorbance was read at 278 nm. The 1 μgfound in the pellet were used to calculate % entrapped (load), μg insupernatant and pellet were used to calculate total μg recovered.

Method for Measuring Ovalbumin (323-339) Load

Approximately 3 mg of synthetic nanocarriers were collected andcentrifuged to separate supernatant from synthetic nanocarrier pellet.Trifluoroethanol was added to the pellet and the sample was sonicated todissolve the polymer, 0.2% trifluoroacetic acid was added and sample wassonicated and then centrifuged to remove any insoluble material. Thesupernatant and pellet were injected on RP-HPLC and absorbance was readat 215 nm. The μg found in the pellet were used to calculate % entrapped(load), μg in supernatant and pellet were used to calculate total μgrecovered.

Antigen-specific Tolerogenic Dendritic Cells (tDC) Activity on Treg CellDevelopment

The assay included the use of OTII mice which have a transgenic T cellreceptor specific for an immune-dominant ovalbumin peptide (323-339). Inorder to create antigen-specific tDCs, CD11c⁺ splenocytes were isolated,and the ovalbumin peptide (323-339) added in vitro at 1 μg/ml or noantigen. Soluble or nanocarrier-encapsulated rapamycin was then added tothe DCs for 2 hours which were then washed extensively to remove freerapamycin from the culture. Purified responder CD4⁺CD25⁻ cells wereisolated from OTII mice and added to tDC at a 10:1 T to DC ratio. Themixture of tDC and OTII T cells were then cultured for 4-5 days, and thefrequency of Treg cells (CD4⁺CD25highFoxP3⁺) were analyzed by flowcytometry as shown in FIG. 1. Regions were selected based on isotypecontrols.

Method of Determining Nanocarrier Dimensions

Measurement of synthetic nanocarrier dimensions was obtained by dynamiclight scattering (DLS). A suspension of the synthetic nanocarriers wasdiluted with purified water to achieve a final synthetic nanocarriersuspension concentration of approximately 0.01 to 0.1 mg/mL. The dilutedsuspension was prepared directly inside a suitable cuvette for DLSanalysis. The cuvette was then placed in a Brookhaven Instruments Corp.ZetaPALS, allowed to equilibrate to 25° C., and then scanned forsufficient time to acquire a stable and reproducible distribution basedon appropriate inputs for viscosity of the medium and refractiveindicies of the sample. The effective diameter, or mean of thedistribution, was then reported.

Results

For proof of concept experiments, the tolerance inducing drug rapamycinwas used in combination with the class II binding ovalbumin peptide323-339. Rapamycin is an immunosuppressant used to suppress allogeneictransplantation rejection and is an inhibitor of mTOR, which is aregulator of several cellular functions including APC and T cellbehavior. The synthetic nanocarriers were prepared according to theabove, representative examples of which are described in more detail inthe following tables (Tables 2-4).

TABLE 2 Synthetic Nanocarriers Containing both Rapamycin and Low LevelConcentration of Ovalbumin (323-339) Washed Rapa Ova Synthetic DiameterYield Load Load Nanocarrier Key Attributes (nm) (%) (%) (%) 1 7525 DLG7A, 10% 265.6 85 9.6 0.6 Rapa, 4% Ova 2 7525 DLG 7A, 2% 257.0 82 1.2 1.8Rapa, 4% Ova 3 5050 DLG 2.5A, 10% 192.8 71 12.8 0.4 Rapa, 4% Ova 4 5050DLG 2.5A, 2% 165.3 64 1.0 0.7 Rapa, 4% Ova 5 7525 DLG 7A, 4% Ova 220.776 — 1.1 6 5050 DLG 2.5A, 4% 161.8 60 — 0.4 Ova 7 7525 DLG 7A, 10% 247.380 10.1 — Rapa 8 5050 DLG 2.5A, 10% 198.9 74 12.6 — Rapa

TABLE 3 Synthetic Nanocarriers Containing both Rapamycin and High LevelConcentration of Ovalbumin (323-339) Washed Rapa Ova Synthetic DiameterYield Load Load Nanocarrier Key Attributes (nm) (%) (%) (%) 9 7525 DLG7A, 270 87 8.8 2.4 10% Rapa; increase target Ova load to 12.5% byincreasing Ova concentration in W1 10 7525 DLG 7A, 194 67 7.0 0.3 10%Rapa; increase target Ova load to 8% by halving polymer concentration inO phase 11 7525 DLG 7A, 227 77 9.3 2.5 25% PLA-PEG, 10% Rapa, 4% Ova 127525 DLG 7A, 239 84 7.9 0.6 10% Rapa, 4% Ova; gentler secondarysonication process

TABLE 4 Synthetic Nanocarriers Containing Rapamycin Washed Rapa OvaSynthetic Diameter Yield Load Load Nanocarrier Key Attributes (nm) (%)(%) (%) 13 PLA-PEG(5k)-OMe 254 75 7.5 N/A 14 100 DL 2A 204 76 7.6 N/A 157525 DLG 7A 263 84 8.4 N/A 16 50% 7525 DLG 7A, 190 53 29.8 N/A 50% 5050DLG 2.5A

The results from a representative flow cytometric analysis show anincrease in the number of CD4⁺CD25highFoxP3⁺ cells (FIG. 1) when DCswere treated with free rapamycin and free Ovalbumin (323-339).

Free rapamycin or synthetic nanocarriers containing rapamycin werecombined with free soluble Ovalbumin (323-339) to evaluate induction oftDC (FIG. 2). It was found that nanocarriers containing rapamycincombined with free ovalbumin (323-339) induces Treg development.Briefly, antigen specific tDC were obtained by isolating dendritic cells(CD11c⁺ splenocytes) and culturing them in combination with theOvalbumin (323-339) peptide plus soluble or nanocarrier encapsulatedrapamycin (Synthetic Nanocarrier #s 13, 14, 15 and 16) for 2 hoursfollowed by extensive washing. Purified responder CD4⁺CD25⁻ cells wereisolated from OTII mice and added to the tDC. The mixture of tDC andOTII T cells were then cultured for 4-5 days, and the frequency of Tregcells (CD4⁺CD25highFoxP3⁺) were analyzed by flow cytometry. The datashow a dose dependent increase in CD4⁺CD25highFoxP3⁺ for both freerapamycin and nanocarrier encapsulated rapamycin suggesting induction ofTreg by rapamycin nanocarrier treated DC.

Various nanocarrier compositions were used to evaluate induction of tDC(FIG. 3), and the induction of Treg was demonstrated. It was found thatnanocarriers with co-encapsulated rapamycin and Ovalbumin (323-339)peptide resulted in higher induction of FoxP3 expressing cells (6.5%)than either unstimulated (1.3%) or rapamycin alone (2.7%).Interestingly, two separate nanocarrier compositions containingrapamycin alone (Synthetic Nanocarrier #s 7 and 8) demonstrated superiorinduction of FoxP3 expressing cells (22.4% and 27.2%, respectively) whencombined with a population of synthetic nanocarriers containingOvalbumin (323-339) as compared to an admixture with free Ovalbumin(323-339) peptide (12.7% and 17.7%, respectively). Overall, the datashow an increase in CD4⁺CD25highFoxP3⁺ when using nanocarrierencapsulated rapamycin with superior responses seen with eitherco-encapsulated Ovalbumin (323-339) peptide or with admixed Ovalbumin(323-339) peptide containing nanocarrier.

Example 6 Evaluating Tolerogenic Immune Response by T cell PhenotypicAnalysis (Prophetic)

A composition of the invention is dissolved in phosphate-buffered saline(PBS) and injected into female Lewis rats intramuscularly in 0.1-0.2 mlcontaining 500 μg of the composition. A control group of rats receives0.1-0.2 ml of PBS. Nine to ten days after the injection, spleen andlymph nodes are harvested from the rats and single cell suspensionsobtained by macerating tissues through a 40 μm nylon cell strainer.Samples are stained in PBS (1% FCS) with the appropriate dilution ofrelevant monoclonal antibodies. Propidum iodide staining cells areexcluded from analysis. Samples are acquired on an LSR2 flow cytometer(BD Biosciences, USA) and analyzed using FACS Diva software. Theexpression of markers CD4, CD25high and FoxP3 is analyzed on the cells.The presence of CD4⁺CD25highFoxP3⁺ cells suggests an induction of CD4+Treg cells.

Example 7 Evaluating Tolerogenic Immune Response to APC PresentableAntigen In Vivo (Prophetic)

Balb/c mice are immunized with an APC presentable antigen in incompleteFreunds adjuvant to induce T cell proliferation (e.g., CD4⁺ T cell), thelevel of which is assessed. Subsequently, a composition of the inventioncomprising the APC presentable antigen and an immunosuppressant isadministered subcutaneously in a dose-dependent manner. The same miceare then again exposed to the APC presentable antigen, and the level ofT cell proliferation is again assessed. Changes in the T cell populationare then monitored with a reduction in T cell proliferation uponsubsequent challenge with the APC presentable antigen indicating atolerogenic immune response.

Example 8 Evaluating Tolerogenic Immune Responses with SyntheticNanocarriers Comprising Immunosuppressant and APC Presentable Antigen InVivo Materials and Methods of Synthetic Nanocarrier ProductionNanocarrier 1

Rapamycin was purchased from TSZ CHEM (185 Wilson Street, Framingham,Mass. 01702; Product Catalogue # R1017). PLGA with a lactide:glycolideratio of 3:1 and an inherent viscosity of 0.75 dL/g was purchased fromSurModics Pharmaceuticals (756 Tom Martin Drive, Birmingham, Ala. 35211;Product Code 7525 DLG 7A). PLA-PEG block co-polymer with a PEG block ofapproximately 5,000 Da and PLA block of approximately 20,000 Da wassynthesized. Polyvinyl alcohol (85-89% hydrolyzed) was purchased fromEMD Chemicals (Product Number 1.41350.1001).

Solutions were prepared as follows:

Solution 1: Rapamycin @ 50 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution wasprepared by dissolving rapamycin in pure methylene chloride. Solution 2:PLGA @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution was prepared bydissolving PLGA in pure methylene chloride. Solution 3: PLA-PEG @ 100mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution was prepared by dissolvingPLA-PEG in pure methylene chloride. Solution 4: Polyvinyl alcohol @ 50mg/mL in 100 mM pH 8 phosphate buffer.

An oil-in-water emulsion was used to prepare the nanocarriers. The O/Wemulsion was prepared by combining solution 1 (0.2 mL), solution 2 (0.75mL), solution 3 (0.25 mL), and solution 4 (3 mL) in a small pressuretube and sonicating at 30% amplitude for 60 seconds using a BransonDigital Sonifier 250. The 0/W emulsion was added to a beaker containing70 mM pH 8 phosphate buffer solution (30 mL) and stirred at roomtemperature for 2 hours to allow the methylene chloride to evaporate andfor the nanocarriers to form. A portion of the nanocarriers was washedby transferring the nanocarrier suspension to a centrifuge tube andcentrifuging at 21,000×g and 4° C. for 45 min, removing the supernatant,and re-suspending the pellet in phosphate buffered saline. The washingprocedure was repeated, and the pellet was re-suspended in phosphatebuffered saline for a final nanocarrier dispersion of about 10 mg/mL.

Nanocarrier size was determined by dynamic light scattering. The amountof rapamycin in the nanocarrier was determined by HPLC analysis. Thetotal dry-nanocarrier mass per mL of suspension was determined by agravimetric method.

Effective Diameter Rapamycin Content Nanocarrier ID (nm) (% w/w)Nanocarrier 1 215 9.5

Nanocarrier 2

Ovalbumin peptide 323-339, a 17 amino acid peptide known to be a T and Bcell epitope of Ovalbumin protein, was purchased from Bachem AmericasInc. (3132 Kashiwa Street, Torrance Calif. 90505; Part #4065609). PLGAwith a lactide:glycolide ratio of 3:1 and an inherent viscosity of 0.75dL/g was purchased from SurModics Pharmaceuticals (756 Tom Martin Drive,Birmingham, Ala. 35211; Product Code 7525 DLG 7A). PLA-PEG blockco-polymer with a PEG block of approximately 5,000 Da and PLA block ofapproximately 20,000 Da was synthesized. Polyvinyl alcohol (85-89%hydrolyzed) was purchased from EMD Chemicals (Product Number1.41350.1001).

Solutions were prepared as follows:

Solution 1: Ovalbumin peptide 323-339 @ 20 mg/mL in dilute hydrochloricacid aqueous solution. The solution was prepared by dissolving ovalbuminpeptide in 0.13 M hydrochloric acid solution at room temperature.Solution 2: PLGA @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution wasprepared by dissolving PLGA in pure methylene chloride. Solution 3:PLA-PEG @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution was prepared bydissolving PLA-PEG in pure methylene chloride. Solution 4: Polyvinylalcohol @ 50 mg/mL in 100 mM pH 8 phosphate buffer.

A primary water-in-oil emulsion was prepared first. W1/O1 was preparedby combining solution 1 (0.2 mL), solution 2 (0.75 mL), and solution 3(0.25 mL) in a small pressure tube and sonicating at 50% amplitude for40 seconds using a Branson Digital Sonifier 250. A secondary emulsion(W1/O1/W2) was then prepared by combining solution 4 (3.0 mL) with theprimary W1/O1 emulsion, vortexing for 10 s, and sonicating at 30%amplitude for 60 seconds using the Branson Digital Sonifier 250.

The W1/O1/W2 emulsion was added to a beaker containing 70 mM pH 8phosphate buffer solution (30 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 2hours to allow the methylene chloride to evaporate and for thenanocarriers to form. A portion of the nanocarriers were washed bytransferring the nanocarrier suspension to a centrifuge tube andcentrifuging at 75,600×g and 4° C. for 35 min, removing the supernatant,and re-suspending the pellet in phosphate buffered saline. The washingprocedure was repeated, and the pellet was re-suspended in phosphatebuffered saline for a final nanocarrier dispersion of about 10 mg/mL.

Nanocarrier size was determined by dynamic light scattering. The amountof peptide in the nanocarrier was determined by HPLC analysis. The totaldry-nanocarrier mass per mL of suspension was determined by agravimetric method.

Effective Diameter Peptide Content Nanocarrier ID (nm) (% w/w)Nanocarrier 2 234 2.1

Nanocarrier 3

Simvastatin was purchased from LKT Laboratories, Inc. (2233 UniversityAvenue West, St. Paul, Minn. 55114; Product Catalogue # S3449). PLGAwith a lactide:glycolide ratio of 3:1 and an inherent viscosity of 0.75dL/g was purchased from SurModics Pharmaceuticals (756 Tom Martin Drive,Birmingham, Ala. 35211; Product Code 7525 DLG 7A). PLA-PEG blockco-polymer with a PEG block of approximately 5,000 Da and PLA block ofapproximately 20,000 Da was synthesized. Polyvinyl alcohol (85-89%hydrolyzed) was purchased from EMD Chemicals (Product Number1.41350.1001).

Solutions were prepared as follows:

Solution 1: Simvastatin @ 50 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solutionwas prepared by dissolving simvastatin in pure methylene chloride.Solution 2: PLGA @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution wasprepared by dissolving PLGA in pure methylene chloride. Solution 3:PLA-PEG @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution was prepared bydissolving PLA-PEG in pure methylene chloride. Solution 4: Polyvinylalcohol @ 50 mg/mL in 100 mM pH 8 phosphate buffer.

An oil-in-water emulsion was used to prepare the nanocarriers. The O/Wemulsion was prepared by combining solution 1 (0.15 mL), solution 2(0.75 mL), solution 3 (0.25 mL), and solution 4 (3 mL) in a smallpressure tube and sonicating at 30% amplitude for 60 seconds using aBranson Digital Sonifier 250. The O/W emulsion was added to a beakercontaining 70 mM pH 8 phosphate buffer solution (30 mL) and stirred atroom temperature for 2 hours to allow the methylene chloride toevaporate and for the nanocarriers to form. A portion of thenanocarriers was washed by transferring the nanocarrier suspension to acentrifuge tube and centrifuging at 75,600×g and 4° C. for 35 min,removing the supernatant, and re-suspending the pellet in phosphatebuffered saline. The washing procedure was repeated, and the pellet wasre-suspended in phosphate buffered saline for a final nanocarrierdispersion of about 10 mg/mL.

Nanocarrier size was determined by dynamic light scattering. The amountof simvastatin in the nanocarrier was determined by HPLC analysis. Thetotal dry-nanocarrier mass per mL of suspension was determined by agravimetric method.

Effective Diameter Simvastatin Content Nanocarrier ID (nm) (% w/w)Nanocarrier 3 196 8.0

Nanocarrier 4

Ovalbumin peptide 323-339, a 17 amino acid peptide known to be a T and Bcell epitope of Ovalbumin protein, was purchased from Bachem AmericasInc. (3132 Kashiwa Street, Torrance Calif. 90505; Part #4065609).Rapamycin was purchased from TSZ CHEM (185 Wilson Street, Framingham,Mass. 01702; Product Catalogue # R1017). PLGA with a lactide:glycolideratio of 3:1 and an inherent viscosity of 0.75 dL/g was purchased fromSurModics Pharmaceuticals (756 Tom Martin Drive, Birmingham, Ala. 35211;Product Code 7525 DLG 7A). PLA-PEG block co-polymer with a PEG block ofapproximately 5,000 Da and PLA block of approximately 20,000 Da wassynthesized. Polyvinyl alcohol (85-89% hydrolyzed) was purchased fromEMD Chemicals (Product Number 1.41350.1001).

Solutions were prepared as follows:

Solution 1: Ovalbumin peptide 323-339 @ 20 mg/mL in dilute hydrochloricacid aqueous solution. The solution was prepared by dissolving ovalbuminpeptide in 0.13 M hydrochloric acid solution at room temperature.Solution 2: Rapamycin @ 50 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution wasprepared by dissolving rapamycin in pure methylene chloride. Solution 3:PLGA @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution was prepared bydissolving PLGA in pure methylene chloride. Solution 4: PLA-PEG @ 100mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution was prepared by dissolvingPLA-PEG in pure methylene chloride. Solution 5: Polyvinyl alcohol @ 50mg/mL in 100 mM pH 8 phosphate buffer.

A primary water-in-oil emulsion was prepared first. W1/O1 was preparedby combining solution 1 (0.2 mL), solution 2 (0.2 mL), solution 3 (0.75mL), and solution 4 (0.25 mL) in a small pressure tube and sonicating at50% amplitude for 40 seconds using a Branson Digital Sonifier 250. Asecondary emulsion (W1/O1/W2) was then prepared by combining solution 5(3.0 mL) with the primary W1/O1 emulsion, vortexing for 10 s, andsonicating at 30% amplitude for 60 seconds using the Branson DigitalSonifier 250.

The W1/O1/W2 emulsion was added to a beaker containing 70 mM pH 8phosphate buffer solution (30 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 2hours to allow the methylene chloride to evaporate and for thenanocarriers to form. A portion of the nanocarriers were washed bytransferring the nanocarrier suspension to a centrifuge tube andcentrifuging at 21,000×g and 4° C. for 45 min, removing the supernatant,and re-suspending the pellet in phosphate buffered saline. The washingprocedure was repeated, and the pellet was re-suspended in phosphatebuffered saline for a final nanocarrier dispersion of about 10 mg/mL.

Nanocarrier size was determined by dynamic light scattering. The amountsof peptide and rapamycin in the nanocarrier were determined by HPLCanalysis. The total dry-nanocarrier mass per mL of suspension wasdetermined by a gravimetric method.

Nanocarrier Effective Diameter Rapamycin Peptide Content ID (nm) Content(% w/w) (% w/w) 4 227 9.0 2.5

Nanocarrier 5

Ovalbumin peptide 323-339, a 17 amino acid peptide known to be a T and Bcell epitope of Ovalbumin protein, was purchased from Bachem AmericasInc. (3132 Kashiwa Street, Torrance Calif. 90505; Part #4065609).Simvastatin was purchased from LKT Laboratories, Inc. (2233 UniversityAvenue West, St. Paul, Minn. 55114; Product Catalogue # S3449). PLGAwith a lactide:glycolide ratio of 3:1 and an inherent viscosity of 0.75dL/g was purchased from SurModics Pharmaceuticals (756 Tom Martin Drive,Birmingham, Ala. 35211; Product Code 7525 DLG 7A). PLA-PEG blockco-polymer with a PEG block of approximately 5,000 Da and PLA block ofapproximately 20,000 Da was synthesized. Polyvinyl alcohol (85-89%hydrolyzed) was purchased from EMD Chemicals (Product Number1.41350.1001).

Solutions were prepared as follows:

Solution 1: Ovalbumin peptide 323-339 @ 20 mg/mL in dilute hydrochloricacid aqueous solution. The solution was prepared by dissolving ovalbuminpeptide in 0.13 M hydrochloric acid solution at room temperature.Solution 2: Simvastatin @ 50 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solutionwas prepared by dissolving simvastatin in pure methylene chloride.Solution 3: PLGA @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution wasprepared by dissolving PLGA in pure methylene chloride. Solution 4:PLA-PEG @ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution was prepared bydissolving PLA-PEG in pure methylene chloride. Solution 5: Polyvinylalcohol @ 50 mg/mL in 100 mM pH 8 phosphate buffer.

A primary water-in-oil emulsion was prepared first. W1/O1 was preparedby combining solution 1 (0.2 mL), solution 2 (0.15 mL), solution 3 (0.75mL), and solution 4 (0.25 mL) in a small pressure tube and sonicating at50% amplitude for 40 seconds using a Branson Digital Sonifier 250. Asecondary emulsion (W1/O1/W2) was then prepared by combining solution 5(3.0 mL) with the primary W1/O1 emulsion, vortexing for 10 s, andsonicating at 30% amplitude for 60 seconds using the Branson DigitalSonifier 250.

The W1/O1/W2 emulsion was added to a beaker containing 70 mM pH 8phosphate buffer solution (30 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 2hours to allow the methylene chloride to evaporate and for thenanocarriers to form. A portion of the nanocarriers were washed bytransferring the nanocarrier suspension to a centrifuge tube andcentrifuging at 75,600×g and 4° C. for 35 min, removing the supernatant,and re-suspending the pellet in phosphate buffered saline. The washingprocedure was repeated, and the pellet was re-suspended in phosphatebuffered saline for a final nanocarrier dispersion of about 10 mg/mL.

Nanocarrier size was determined by dynamic light scattering. The amountsof peptide and simvastatin in the nanocarrier were determined by HPLCanalysis. The total dry-nanocarrier mass per mL of suspension wasdetermined by a gravimetric method.

Nanocarrier Effective Simvastatin Content Peptide Content ID Diameter(nm) (% w/w) (% w/w) Nanocarrier 5 226 2.7 1.9In vivo Administration 1

Spleens from B6.Cg-Tg(TcraTcrb)425Cbna (OTII) and C57BL/6 (B6) mice wereharvested, mechanically dissociated and filtered separately through a 70μM sieve to yield a single-cell suspension. Purified CD4⁺CD25− cellswere then extracted in a 2-step process. Using a Miltenyi BiotecAutoMACS magnetic cell sorter spleen cells were first labeled with CD4⁺T-cell isolation kit II and the unlabeled fraction was depleted of CD25⁺cells with CD25 depletion kit. The purified B6 cells were stained withan intracellular dye, Carboxyfluorescein Succinimidyl Ester (CFSE),before being admixed at equal concentrations with the purified OTIIcells. They were then injected intravenously (i.v.) intoB6.5JL-Ptprc^(a)/BoyAi (CD45.1) recipient mice.

The next day the recipient CD45.1 mice were treated with targetedtolerogenic synthetic vaccine particles (t²SVP). They were loaded withcombinations of ovalbumin peptide (323-339) (OVA³²³⁻³³⁹), Rapamycin(Rapa) and/or Simvastatin (Simva) and were administered subcutaneously(s.c.).

The injection constitutes a tolerogenic treatment and was followed by 4more injections each spaced 2 weeks apart. After the treatment schedulewas completed the recipient CD45.1 animals were killed and their spleensand popliteal lymph nodes were harvested, mechanically dissociated andfiltered separately through a 70 μM sieve to yield a single-cellsuspension. The spleen cells were depleted of red blood cells (RBCs) byincubation with RBC lysis buffer (Stem Cell Technologies) and cellcounts were performed on both the spleens and lymph nodes.

Spleen or lymph node cells were cultured in CM (complete media)supplemented with 10 U/ml IL-2, restimulated with OPII at 0.3×10⁶cells/well in 96-well round bottom (RB) plates and incubated at 37° C.,5% CO₂. Cells were split at Day 2 and harvested on Day 5. Supernatantswere collected and frozen while cells were stained for phenotypicanalysis by flow cytometry. The cells were analyzed on a BectonDickinson FacsCanto flow cytometer.

In Vivo Administration 2

Spleens from B6.Cg-Tg(TcraTcrb)425Cbna (OTII) and C57BL/6 (B6) mice wereharvested, mechanically dissociated and filtered separately through a 70μM sieve to yield a single-cell suspension. Purified CD4⁺CD25− cellswere then extracted in a 2-step process using a Miltenyi Biotec AutoMACSmagnetic cell sorter. Spleen cells were labeled using Miltenyi's CD4⁺T-cell isolation kit II. The unlabeled CD4+ T-cell fraction was thendepleted of CD25⁺ cells with CD25 depletion kit. The purified CD4 cellsfrom B6 mice were then stained with an intracellular dye,Carboxyfluorescein Succinimidyl Ester (CFSE), before being admixed atequal concentrations with the purified OTII cells. They were theninjected intravenously (i.v.) into B6.5JL-Ptprc^(a)/BoyAi (CD45.1)recipient mice.

The next day the recipient CD45.1 mice were treated with targetedtolerogenic synthetic vaccine particles. They comprised combinations ofovalbumin peptide (323-339) (OVA³²³⁻³³⁹), Rapamycin (Rapa) andSimvastatin (Simva) and were administered subcutaneously (s.c.) orintravenously (i.v.).

After the treatment schedule was completed the recipient CD45.1 animalswere killed and their spleens and popliteal lymph nodes were harvested,mechanically dissociated and filtered separately through a 70 μM sieveto yield a single-cell suspension. The spleen cells were depleted of redblood cells (RBCs) by incorporation with RBC lysis buffer (Stem CellTechnologies) and cell counts were performed on both the spleens andlymph nodes.

Spleen or lymph node cells were cultured in CM supplemented with 10 U/mlIL-2, restimulated with 1 μM OPII at 0.3×10⁶ cells/well in 96-well roundbottom (RB) plates and incubated at 37° C., 5% CO₂. Cells were split atDay 2 and harvested on Day 5. Supernatants were collected and frozenwhile cells were stained for phenotypic analysis by flow cytometry. Thecells were analyzed on a Becton Dickinson FacsCanto flow cytometer.

Results

The results are shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 (Immunomodulator 1: rapamycin;immunomodulator 2: simvastatin). The figures shows in vivo effects anddemonstrates that the number of immune cells is reduced by syntheticnanocarriers comprising antigen and immunosuppressants when compared toantigen-only nanocarrier. FIG. 5 demonstrates an increase in thepercentage of immune cells that express FoxP3 with syntheticnanocarriers comprising antigen and immunosuppressant.

Example 9 Evaluating CD69 Activation with Synthetic NanocarriersComprising Immunosuppressant Nanocarriers

α-Galactosyl Ceramide (KRN7000) was purchased from Avanti Polar Lipids,Inc. (700 Industrial Park Drive Alabaster, Ala. 35007-9105; Catalognumber 867000P). PLGA with a lactide:glycolide ratio of 1:1 and aninherent viscosity of 0.45 dL/g was purchased from SurModicsPharmaceuticals (756 Tom Martin Drive, Birmingham, Ala. 35211; ProductCode 5050 DLG 4.5A). Polyvinyl alcohol (85-89% hydrolyzed) was purchasedfrom EMD Chemicals (Product Number 1.41350.1001).

Solutions were prepared as follows:

Solution 1: KRN7000 @ 2 mg/mL in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). The solutionwas prepared by dissolving the dry lipid in pure DMSO. Solution 2: PLGA@ 100 mg/mL in methylene chloride. The solution was prepared bydissolving the PLGA in pure methylene chloride. Solution 3: Polyvinylalcohol @ 50 mg/mL in 100 mM pH 8 phosphate buffer.

A water-in-oil emulsion, (W/O) was prepared by combining solution 1 (1mL), solution 2 (1 mL), solution 3 (3 mL) in a small pressure tube andsonicating at 30% amplitude for 60 seconds using a Branson DigitalSonifier model 250, with the pressure tube immersed in an ice waterbath. The W/O emulsion was then added to a beaker containing 70 mM pH 8phosphate buffer solution (30 mL) and stirred at room temperature for 2hours to allow the methylene chloride to evaporate and for thenanocarriers to form. A portion of the nanocarriers were washed bytransferring the nanocarrier suspension to a centrifuge tube andcentrifuging at 75,600×g at 4° C. for 45 min, removing the supernatant,and re-suspending the pellet in phosphate buffered saline. The washingprocedure was repeated, and the pellet was re-suspended in phosphatebuffered saline for a final nanocarrier dispersion of about 10 mg/mL.Nanocarrier size was determined by dynamic light scattering. The amountof KRN7000 in the nanocarrier is reported as the theoretical loadinggiven no loss on processing. The total dry-nanocarrier mass per mL ofsuspension (NP concentration), was determined by a gravimetric method.

KRN7000 Content NP Effective Diameter (Theoretical % concentrationNanocarrier (nm) wt/wt) (mg/mL) 212 2.0 9.0

Immunization

Mice were designated to groups that received PBS alone, sol aGC+solRAPA,sol aGC+NP RAPA. Mice were injected at 9 am and at 9.30 AM receivedBrefeldinA i.v. to prevent release of intracellular cytokines produced.At 1 pm, mice were sacrificed and the liver was perfused with PBS andprocessed to obtain a single cell suspension enriched for lymphocytes.Cells were stained with cell surface markers for iNKT cells (agc-loadedCD1d tetramers) and T cells receptor (TCRb) and activation marker CD69.Cells were acquired on a FacsCanto flow cytometer and analyzed on byFlowJo.

Results

iNKT cells from mice that received aGC were activated as seen bycytokine production and up regulation of CD69 on their surface. Bothsoluble and nanocarrier Rapamycin caused a significant decrease insurface levels of CD69 on iNKT cells, suggesting the cells were lessactivated following treatment compared to PBS treatment control. Theresults are shown in FIG. 6.

Example 10 Mesoporous Silica-gold Core-shell Nanocarriers ContainingOvalbumin (Prophetic)

Mesoporous SiO2 nanoparticle cores are created through a sol-gelprocess. Hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) (0.5 g) is dissolvedin deionized water (500 mL), and then 2 M aqueous NaOH solution (3.5 mL)is added to the CTAB solution. The solution is stirred for 30 min, andthen Tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) (2.5 mL) is added to the solution. Theresulting gel is stirred for 3 h at a temperature of 80° C. The whiteprecipitate which forms is captured by filtration, followed by washingwith deionized water and drying at room temperature. The remainingsurfactant is then extracted from the particles by suspension in anethanolic solution of HCl overnight. The particles are washed withethanol, centrifuged, and redispersed under ultrasonication. This washprocedure is repeated two additional times.

The SiO2 nanoparticles are then functionalized with amino groups using(3-aminopropyl)-triethoxysilane (APTMS). To do this, the particles aresuspended in ethanol (30 mL), and APTMS (50 μL) is added to thesuspension. The suspension is allowed to stand at room temperature for 2h and then is boiled for 4 h, keeping the volume constant byperiodically adding ethanol. Remaining reactants are removed by fivecycles of washing by centrifugation and redispersing in pure ethanol.

In a separate reaction, 1-4 nm diameter gold seeds are created. Allwater used in this reaction is first deionized and then distilled fromglass. Water (45.5 mL) is added to a 100 mL round-bottom flask. Whilestirring, 0.2 M aqueous NaOH (1.5 mL) is added, followed by a 1% aqueoussolution of tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride (THPC) (1.0 mL).Two minutes after the addition of THPC solution, a 10 mg/mL aqueoussolution of chloroauric acid (2 mL), which has been aged at least 15min, is added. The gold seeds are purified through dialysis againstwater.

To form the core-shell nanocarriers, the amino-functionalized SiO2nanoparticles formed above are first mixed with the gold seeds for 2 hat room temperature. The gold-decorated SiO2 particles are collectedthrough centrifugation and mixed with an aqueous solution of chloroauricacid and potassium bicarbonate to form the gold shell. The particles arethen washed by centrifugation and redispersed in water. ThiolatedOvalbumin (made by treating Ovalbumin with 2-iminothiolanehydrochloride) is loaded by suspending the particles in a solution ofthiolated Ovalbumin (1 mg/L) for 72 h. The particles is then pelletwashed with 1×PBS (pH 7.4) to remove free protein. The resultingsilica-gold core-shell nanocarriers containing Ovalbumin are thenre-suspended in 1×PBS for further analysis and assays.

Example 11 Liposomes Containing Rapamycin and Ovalbumin (Prophetic)

The liposomes are formed by thin film hydration.1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) (32 μmol),cholesterol (32 μmol), and rapamycin (6.4 μmol) are dissolved in purechloroform (3 mL). This lipid solution is added to a 10 mL glass tubeand the solvent is removed under nitrogen gas stream and desiccated for6 hr. under vacuum. Multilamellar vesicles are obtained by hydration ofthe film with 2.0 ml of 25 mM MOPS buffer pH 8.5, containing excessamount of Ovalbumin. The tube is vortexed until the lipid film is peeledof from the tube surface. To break the multilamellar vesicles intomonolamellar, ten cycles of freezing (liquid nitrogen) and thawing (30°C. water bath) are applied. The sample is then diluted to 1 ml in 25 mMMOPS buffer pH 8.5. Size of the resulting liposome is homogenized byextrusion by passing the sample 10 fold through a 200 nm porepolycarbonate filters. The resulting liposomes are then used for furtheranalysis and bioassays.

Example 12 Polymeric Nanocarriers Composed of Modified Polyamino Acidwith Surface Conjugated Ovalbumin (Prophetic)

Step-1. Preparation of Poly(γ-glutamic acid) (γ-PGA) modified withL-phenylalanine ethyl ester (L-PAE): 4.7 unit mmol of γ-PGA (Mn=300 kD)is dissolved in 0.3 N—NaHCO3 aqueous solution (50 mL). L-PAE (4.7 mmol)and EDC.HCl (4.7 mmol) are added to the solution and stirred for 30 minat 4 C. The solution is then maintained at room temperature withstirring for 24 h. Low-molecular-weight chemicals are removed bydialysis using dialysis membrane with MWCO 50 kD. The resultingγ-PGA-graft-L-PAE is obtained by freeze-drying.

Step-2. Preparation of nanoparticles from γ-PGA-graft-L-PAE polymer:Nanoparticles composed of γ-PGA-graft-L-PAE are prepared by aprecipitation and dialysis method. γ-PGA-graft-L-PAE (20 mg) wasdissolved in 2 ml of DMSO followed by addition of 2 mL of water to forma translucent solution. The solution is then dialyzed against distilledwater using cellulose membrane tubing (50,000 MWCO) to form thenanoparticles and to remove the organic solvents for 72 h at roomtemperature. The distilled water is exchanged at intervals of 12 h. Theresulting nanoparticle solution (10 mg/mL in water) is then used forantigen conjugation.

Step-3. Ovalbumin conjugation to γ-PGA nanoparticles: Surface carboxylicacid groups of the γ-PGA nanoparticles (10 mg/ml) are first activated byEDC and NHS (10 mg/mL each in phosphate buffer, pH 5.8) for 2 h atambient temperature. After pellet washing to remove excess EDC/NHS, theactivated nanoparticles are mixed with 1 mL of Ovalbumin (10 mg/ml) inphosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) and the mixture is incubated at4-8 C for 24 h. The resulting Ovalbumin conjugated γ-PGA nanoparticlesare washed twice with PBS and resuspended at 5 mg/mL in PBS for furtheranalysis and bioassays.

Example 13 Erythropoietin (EPO)-encapsulated γ-PGA Nanoparticles(Prophetic)

To prepare the EPO-encapsulated γ-PGA nanoparticles, 0.25-4 mg of EPO isdissolved in 1 mL of PBS (pH 7.4) and 1 mL of the γ-PGA-graft-L-PAE (10mg/mL in DMSO) is added to the EPO solution. The resulting solution iscentrifuged at 14,000×g for 15 min and repeatedly rinsed with PBS. Theresulting EPO-encapsulated γ-PGA nanoparticles are then resuspended inPBS (5 mg/mL) for further analysis and bioassay.

Example 14 Preparation of Gold Nanocarriers (AuNCs) Containing Ovalbumin(Prophetic)

Step-1. Formation of Gold NCs (AuNCs): An aq. solution of 500 mL of 1 mMHAuCl4 is heated to reflux for 10 min with vigorous stirring in a 1 Lround-bottom flask equipped with a condenser. A solution of 50 mL of 40mM of trisodium citrate is then rapidly added to the stirring solution.The resulting deep wine red solution is kept at reflux for 25-30 min andthe heat is withdrawn and the solution is cooled to room temperature.The solution is then filtered through a 0.8 μm membrane filter to givethe AuNCs solution. The AuNCs are characterized using visiblespectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The AuNCs are ca. 20nm diameter capped by citrate with peak absorption at 520 nm.

Step-2. Conjugation of Ovalbumin to AuNCs: A solution of 150 μl ofthiolated Ovalbumin (10 μM in 10 mM pH 9.0 carbonate buffer) is added to1 mL of 20 nm diameter citrate-capped gold nanocarriers (1.16 nM) toproduce a molar ratio of thiol to gold of 2500:1. The mixture is stirredat room temperature under argon for 1 hour to allow complete exchange ofthiol with citrate on the gold nanocarriers. The AuNCs with Ovalbumin onthe surface is then purified by centrifuge at 12,000 g for 30 minutes.The supernatant is decanted and the pellet containing AuNC-Ovalbumin isthen pellet washed with 1×PBS buffer. The purified Gold-Ovalbuminnanocarriers are then resuspend in suitable buffer for further analysisand bioassays.

F. REFERENCES

Listing of any reference herein is not an admission that the referenceor its teachings is/are prior art.

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1. A composition comprising: (i) a first population of syntheticnanocarriers coupled to an immunosuppressant, and (ii) an APCpresentable antigen.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein theimmunosuppressant in the composition is in an amount effective togenerate a tolerogenic immune response to the APC presentable antigen.3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the APC presentable antigen iscoupled to synthetic nanocarriers of the first population of syntheticnanocarriers.
 4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the APC presentableantigen is coupled to synthetic nanocarriers of a second population ofsynthetic nanocarriers.
 5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the meanof a particle size distribution obtained using dynamic light scatteringof the synthetic nanocarriers of the first and/or second population is adiameter of greater than 100 nm. 6-9. (canceled)
 10. The composition ofclaim 1, wherein the immunosuppressant comprises a statin, an mTORinhibitor, a TGF-β signaling agent, a corticosteroid, an inhibitor ofmitochondrial function, a P38 inhibitor, an NF-κβ inhibitor, anadenosine receptor agonist, a prostaglandin E2 agonist, aphosphodiesterasse 4 inhibitor, an HDAC inhibitor or a proteasomeinhibitor; and/or wherein the APC presentable antigen: comprises an MHCclass I-restricted and/or MHC class II-restricted epitope; is a lipidthat binds to CD1d; and/or is a therapeutic protein or portion thereof,an autoantigen or an allergen or is associated with an autoimmunedisease, an inflammatory disease, an allergy, organ or tissue rejectionor graft versus host disease. 11-14. (canceled)
 15. The composition ofclaim 1, wherein the load of the immunosuppressant and/or the APCpresentable antigen on average across the population of first and/orsecond synthetic nanocarriers is between 0.0001% and 50%(weight/weight). 16-18. (canceled)
 19. The composition of claim 1,wherein the synthetic nanocarriers of the first and/or second populationof synthetic nanocarriers comprise lipid nanoparticles, polymericnanoparticles, metallic nanoparticles, surfactant-based emulsions,dendrimers, buckyballs, nanowires, virus-like particles or peptide orprotein particles.
 20. The composition of claim 19, wherein when thesynthetic nanocarriers of the first and/or second population ofsynthetic nanocarriers comprise polymeric nanoparticles, the polymericnanoparticles comprise polymer that is a non-methoxy-terminated,pluronic polymer.
 21. The composition of claim 19, wherein the polymericnanoparticles comprise a polyester, a polyester coupled to a polyether,polyamino acid, polycarbonate, polyacetal, polyketal, polysaccharide,polyethyloxazoline or polyethyleneimine. 22-24. (canceled)
 25. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein the aspect ratios of the syntheticnanocarriers of the first and/or second population of syntheticnanocarriers is greater than 1:1, 1:1.2, 1:1.5, 1:2, 1:3, 1:5, 1:7 or1:10.
 26. (canceled)
 27. A dosage form comprising the composition ofclaim
 1. 28. A method comprising administering the dosage form of claim27 to a subject.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the subject is inneed of antigen-specific tolerance.
 30. The method of claim 28, whereinthe dosage form is administered in an amount effective to result in atolerogenic immune response specific to the APC presentable antigen. 31.The method of claim 28, wherein the dosage form is administered to thesubject according to a protocol that was previously shown to result in atolerogenic immune response specific to the APC presentable antigen inone or more test subjects.
 32. The method of claim 28, wherein themethod further comprises providing or identifying the subject.
 33. Themethod of claim 28, wherein the method further comprises assessing thegeneration of the tolerogenic immune response specific to the APCpresentable antigen in the subject.
 34. The method of claim 28, whereinthe subject has an autoimmune disease, an inflammatory disease, anallergy, organ or tissue rejection, graft versus host disease or hasundergone or will undergo transplantation, or wherein the subject hasreceived, is receiving or will receive a therapeutic protein againstwhich they have experienced, are experiencing or are expected toexperience an undesired immune response.
 35. (canceled)
 36. The methodof claim 28, wherein the dosage form is administered by intravenous,transmucosal, intraperitoneal, oral, subcutaneous, pulmonary,intranasal, intradermal or intramuscular administration. 37-44.(canceled)